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56  MAU  (A.).    Pompeii :   its  Life  and  Art.    Translated  by  F.  W  Kelsey 

Nel°YoT \9Q2  "'  '"''^  ^  ^^''"''  ^^  ^^^''''  ''"'^  ^75  text-illustrations;   cloth. 


POMPEII 

ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


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The    Latin    Thesaurus    association, 
witli    lieadquarters    at    Munich,    Ger- 
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iiat  i  ^^    ^^    engraved    card,    and    has    been 

sent     to     many     prominent     classical 

scholars. 

Under    the    main    inscription    is    a 

poem  in  Latin  expressing  appreciation 

of  the   work   which   Professor   Kelsey 

did  for  the  Thesaurus  association,  and 

regret  at  his  death. 

The     main     inscription,     in   Latin, 

reads:  "In  Memoriam. . .  .Francisci  W. 

j  Kelsey Professoris      Universitatis 

Michiganae    PR . .  ID    Mai    

A.D.  MCMXXVII." 

Has   Other  Inscription 

Following  the  main  inscription  is  a 

poem  in  Latin  expressing  appreciation  ' 

of  the   work   which   Professor  Kelsey 

did  for  the  cause  of  the  Thesaurus  and 

also   expressing   regret   at   his   death,  i 

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j      "Qvci  fvit  adivtor  Thesavro  sponte 

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I  "Vivit   .  qvem     memori     pectora 

I  covde  colvnt." 

[  I      The  Latin     Thesaurus     association, 

lavy  I  according    to    Dr.    Robbins,   is    an   or- 

riod  I  ganization  which  has  for  its  purpose 

3Ut-  I  the  compilation  of  a  stupendous  Latin 

nen  !  dictionary,  to  include  the  meanings  of 

lar-  I  ^11  Latin  v»'ord.3  from  usage.  For  this 

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cal  !  English    Oxford      dictionary      has    at- 

me  I  tempted  such  an  exhaustive  classifica- 

,ec-  I  tion  of  words,  and  at  the  close  of  the 

by    World  war,  due  to  economic  extremity 

j^  it    of  Germany,   the   continuation   of   the 

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the  j      At   this    time    Professor   Kelsey   un- 

the  i  dertook    to    raise    in    America    enough 

ave  I  money  to  carry  the  work  forward,  and 

the  '  hy  solicitation  of  his  friends  and  also 

by  personal  donation  he  was  able  to 

leii-    send   several   thousands  of  dollars  to 

[the  j  the  association  at  Munich. 


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POMPEII 


ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


BY 

AUGUST    MAU 

GERMAN   ARCHAEOLOGICAL   INSTITUTE   IN    ROME 


STranslatct)  into  lEngliglj 
By   FRANCIS   W.    KELSEY 

UNIVERSITY   OF    MICHIGAN 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM  ORIGINAL 
DRAWINGS  AND   PHOTOGRAPHS 


NEW   EDITION,    REVISED   AND   CORRECTED 

THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON  :  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,   Ltd. 
1902 

All  rights   reier-ved 


Copyright,  1899,  1902, 
By   FRANCIS   W.    KELSEY. 


First  Edition,  October,  1899. 

New  Revised  Edition,  with  additions,  November,  1902. 


NartDoot  ^^tess 

J.  S.  Cushin^  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION 

For  twenty-five  years  Professor  Mau  has  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  Pompeii,  spending  his  summers  among  the  ruins 
and  his  winters  in  Rome,  working  up  the  new  material.  He 
holds  a  unique  place  among  the  scholars  who  have  given  atten- 
tion to  Pompeian  antiquities,  and  his  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  have  been  numerous  in  both  German  and 
Italian.  The  present  volume,  however,  is  not  a  translation  of 
one  previously  issued,  but  a  new  work  first  published  in  English, 
the  liberality  of  the  publishers  having  made  it  possible  to  secure 
assistance  for  the  preparation  of  certain  restorations  and  other 
drawings  which  Professor  Mau  desired  to  have  made  as  illustrat- 
ing his  interpretation  of  the  ruins. 

In  one  respect  there  is  an  essential  difference  between  the 
remains  of  Pompeii  and  those  of  the  large  and  famous  cities 
of  antiquity,  as  Rome  or  Athens,  which  have  associated  with 
them  the  familiar  names  of  historical  characters.  Mars'  Hill  is 
clothed  with  human  interest,  if  for  no  other  reason,  because  of 
its  relation  to  the  work  of  the  Apostle  Paul ;  while  the  Roman 
Forum  and  the  Palatine,  barren  as  they  seem  to-day,  teem  with 
life  as  there  rise  before  the  mind's  eye  the  scenes  presented  in 
the  pages  of  classical  writers.  But  the  Campanian  city  played 
an  unimportant  part  in  contemporary  history;  the  name  of  not 
a  single  great  Pompeian  is  recorded.  The  ruins,  deprived  of 
the  interest  arising  from  historical  associations,  must  be  inter- 
preted with  little  help  from  literary  sources,  and  repeopled  with 
aggregate  rather  than  individual  life. 

A  few  Pompeians,  whose  features  have  survived  in  herms  or 
statues  and  whose  names  are  known  from  the  inscriptions,  seem 

V 


vi  PREFACE 

near  to  us,  —  such  are  Caecilius  Jucundus  and  the  generous 
priestess  Eumachia;  but  the  characters  most  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  the  city  are  those  of  fiction.  Here,  in  a  greater 
degree  than  in  most  places,  the  work  of  reconstruction  involves 
the  handling  of  countless  bits  of  evidence,  which,  when  viewed 
by  themselves,  often  seem  too  minute  to  be  of  importance;  the 
blending  of  these  into  a  complete  and  faithful  picture  is  a  task 
of  infinite  painstaking,  the  difficulty  of  which  will  best  be  appre- 
ciated by  one  who  has  worked  in  this  field. 

It  was  at  first  proposed  to  place  at  the  end  of  the  book  a 
series  of  bibliographical  notes  on  the  different  chapters,  giving 
references  to  the  more  important  treatises  and  articles  dealing 
with  the  matters  presented.  But  on  fuller  consideration  it 
seemed  unnecessary  thus  to  add  to  the  bulk  of  the  volume ; 
those  who  are  interested  in  the  study  of  a  particular  building 
or  aspect  of  Pompeian  culture  will  naturally  turn  to  the  Pom- 
peianarmn  antiqiiitatiivi  Jiistoria,  the  reports  in  the  Xotizie  dcgli 
Scavi,  the  reports  and  articles  by  Professor  Mau  in  the  Roman 
MittJieibmgen  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute,  the 
Overbeck-Mau  Povipcji,  the  Studies  by  Mau  and  by  Nissen, 
the  commemorative  volume  issued  in  1879  under  the  title 
Ponipei  e  la  regionc  sottermta  dal  Vesuvio,  the  catalogues  of 
the  paintings  by  Helbig  and  Sogliano,  together  with  Mau's 
GescJiicJite  der  decorativen  Waiidnialcrei  i)i  Ponipeji,  H.  von 
Rohden's  Terracotten  von  Pompcji,  and  the  older  illustrated 
works,  as  well  as  the  beautiful  volume,  Ponipeji  vor  der  Zer- 
stoerung,  published  in  1897  by  Weichardt. 

The  titles  of  more  than  five  hundred  books  and  pamphlets 
relating  to  Pompeii  are  given  in  Furchheim's  Bibliogmfia  di 
Ponipei  [sQcond  edition,  Naples,  1891).  To  this  list  should  be 
added  an  elaborate  work  on  the  temple  of  Isis,  Aedis  Isidis 
Ponipeiana,  which  is  soon  to  appear.  The  copperplates  for 
the  engravings  were  prepared  at  the  expense  of  the  old  Acca- 
demia  ercolanese,  but  only  the  first  section  of  the  work  was 
published ;  the  plates,  fortunately,  have  been  preserved  without 


PREFACE  vii 

injury,  and  the  publication  has  at  last  been  undertaken  by 
Professor  Sogliano. 

Professor  Mau  wishes  to  make  grateful  acknowledgment  of 
obligation  to  Messrs.  C.  Bazzani,  R.  Koldewey,  G.  Randanini, 
and  G.  Tognetti  for  kind  assistance  in  making  ready  for  the 
engraver  the  drawings  presenting  restorations  of  buildings ;  to 
the  authorities  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute  for 
freely  granting  the  use  of  a  number  of  drawings  in  its  collec- 
tion ;  and  to  the  photographer,  Giacomo  Brogi  of  Florence,  for 
placing  his  collection  of  photographs  at  the  author's  disposal 
and  making  special  prints  for  the  use  of  the  engraver.  In 
addition  to  the  photographs  obtained  from  Brogi,  a  small  num- 
ber were  furnished  for  the  volume  by  the  translator,  and  a  few 
were  derived  from  other  sources. 

The  restorations  are  not  fanciful.  They  were  made  with 
the  help  of  careful  measurements  and  of  computations  based 
upon  the  existing  remains ;  occasionally  also  evidence  derived 
from  reliefs  and  wall  paintings  was  utilized.  Uncertain  details 
are  generally  omitted. 

It  is  due  to  Professor  Mau  to  say  that  in  preparing  his  manu- 
script for  English  readers  I  have,  with  his  permission,  made 
some  changes.  The  order  of  presentation  has  occasionally  been 
altered.  In  several  chapters  the  German  manuscript  has  been 
abridged,  while  in  others,  containing  points  in  regard  to  which 
English  readers  might  desire  a  somewhat  fuller  statement,  I 
have  made  slight  additions.  The  preparation  of  the  English 
form  of  the  volume,  undertaken  for  reasons  of  friendship,  has 
been  less  a  task  than  a  pleasure. 

FRANCIS   W.    KELSEY. 

Ann  Arbor,  Michigan, 
October  25,  1899. 


PREFACE   TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION 

The  author  and  the  translator  unite  in  expressing  their  deep 
appreciation  of  the  kind  reception  accorded  to  the  first  edition 
of  this  book. 

The  second  edition  has  been  revised  on  the  spot.  Besides 
minor  additions,  it  has  been  enlarged  by  a  chapter  on  the  recently 
discovered  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana,  and  a  Bibliographical 
Appendix,  prepared  in  response  to  requests  from  various  quar- 
ters. Among  the  new  illustrations  in  the  text  are  a  restoration 
of  the  temple  of  Vespasian  and  a  reproduction  of  the  bronze 
youth  found  in  1900,  besides  the  Alexandria  patera  and  one  of 
the  skeleton  cups  from  the  Boscoreale  treasure;  in  Plate  VIII 
are  presented  two  additional  paintings  from  the  house  of  the 
Vettii. 

The  translator  is  alone  responsible  for  Chapter  LIX,  which 
was  prepared  for  the  first  edition  at  Professor  Mau's  request,  at 
a  time  when  he  was  pressed  with  other  work  ;  for  the  paragraphs 
in  regard  to  the  treasure  of  Boscoreale,  and  for  one-half  of  the 
references  in  the  Bibliographical  Appendix. 

AUGUST    MAU 

FRANCIS   W.   KELSEY 

Albergo  del  Sole,  Pompei 

August  2,  1 90 1 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Situation  of  Pompeii i 

II.  Before  79 8 

III.  The  Citv  Overwhelmed 19 

IV.  The  Unearthing  of  the  City 25 

V.  A  Bird's-eye  View 31 

VI.     Building  Materials,  Construction,  and  Architectural 

Periods 35 

PART    I 
PUBLIC    PLACES   AND   BUILDINGS 


VII.  The  Forum 45 

VIII.  General  View  of  the  Buildings  about  the  Forum. — 
The  Temple  of  Jupiter 

IX.  The  Basilica         .... 

X.  The  Temple  of  Apollo 

XI.  The    Buildings    at    the    Northwest    Corner    of 
Forum,  and  the  Table  of  Standard  Measures 

XII.  The  Macellum     .... 

XIII.  The  Sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares 

XIV.  The  Temple  of  Vespasian 
XV.  The  Building  of  Eumachia 

XVI.  The  Comitium        .... 

XVIL  The  Municipal  Buildings  . 


91 
94 
102 
106 
no 
119 

121 


CONTENTS 


XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 


XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XX\'II. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXX IL 


AS    Barr.acks   for 


The  Temple  of  Venus  Pompeiaxa  .  .  .  . 
The  Te.mple  of  Fortuna  Augista  .  .  .  . 
General  View    of    the    Public   Buildings  near  the 

Stabian  Gate. — The  Foru.m  Triangulare  and  the 

Doric  Temple 
The  Large  Theatre 
The  Small  Theatre 
The     Theatre   Colonnade    used 

Gladiators  .... 
The  Palaestra 
The  Temple  of  Isis 
The  Temple  of  Zeus  Milichius 
The  Baths  at  Pompeii.  —  The  St 
The  Baths  near  the  Forum 
The  Central  Baths 
The  Amphitheatre 

Streets.  Water  Svstem.  and  Wavside  Shrines 
The  Defences  of  the  Citv  .... 


viuAN  Baths 


VAC.E 
124 


^33 
141 
153 

157 
165 
168 

183 
186 
202 
208 
212 
227 
237 


PART    II 


THE    HOUSES 

XXXIII.     The  Pompeian  House     .... 

I.  Vestibule,  Fauces,  and  Front  Door 

II.  The  Atrium  .... 

III.  The  Tablinum      .... 

IV..  The  Alae     ..... 

V.  The  Rooms  about  the  Atrium.     The  Andron 

VI.  Garden,  Peristyle,  and  Rooms  about  the  Peristyle 

VII.  Sleeping  Rooms  ....... 

\tii.  Dining  Rooms     ....... 

!.\.  The  Kitchen,  the  Batli.  and  the  Storerooms 


-33 

258 
259 
260 
261 
262 
266 


contp:nts 


X.     The  Shrine  of  the  Household  Gods 
XI.     Second  Story  Rooms   . 
XII.     The  Shops  ..... 
XIII.     Walls,  Floors,  and  Windows 
XXXIV.     The  House  of  the  Surgeon 
XXXV.     The  House  of  Sallust 
XXXVI.     The  House  of  the  Faun 
XXX\'II.     A  House  near  the  Porta  Marina 
XXXVIII.     The  House  of  the  Silver  Wedding  . 
XXXIX.     The  House  of  Epidius  Rufus 
XL.     The  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet 
XLI.     The  House  of  the  Vettii     . 
XLII.    Three  Houses  of  Unusual  Plan 

I.     The  House  of  Acceptus  and  Euhodia 
II.     A  House  without  a  Compluvium 
III.     The  House  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II 
XLIII.     Other  Noteworthy  Houses 
XLIV.     Roman  Villas. — The  Villa  of  Diomedes 
XLV.     The  Villa  Rustica  at  Boscoreale     . 
XLVI.     Household  Furniture   .... 

PART    III 

TRADES   AND    OCCUPATIONS 

XLVII.     The  Trades  at  Pompeii.  —  The  Bakers 
XLVIII.     The  Fullers  and  the  Tanners   . 
XLIX.     Inns  and  Wineshops       .... 


PAGE 
268 

276 
278 
280 
283 
288 
298 

321 
341 
341 

343 
344 
348 

355 
361 

367 


383 
393 
400 


PART    IV 
THE   TOMBS 

L.     PoMPEiAN  Burial  Places.  —  The  Street  of  Tombs    .     405 

LI.     Burial  Places  near  the  Nola,  Stabian,  and  Nocera 

Gates 429 


xii  CONTENTS 

PART   V 

POMPEIAN    ART 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

LI  I.  Architecture 437 

LIII.  Sculpture 445 

LIV.  Painting.  —  Wall  Decoration 456 

LV.  The  Paintings 471 

PART   VI 

THE    INSCRIPTIONS   OF   POMPEII 

LVI.     Importance  of  the  Inscriptions.  —  Monumental  In- 
scriptions AND  Public  Notices         ....    485 

LVII.     The  Graffiti 491 

LVIII.     Inscriptions  relating  to  Business  Affairs        .        .    499 


CONCLUSION 

LIX.     The  Significance  of  the  Pompeian  Culture  509 

BIBLIOCiRAFHICAL    APPENDIX 512 

INDEX 551 

KEY    TO    THE    PLAN    OF    POMPEII 559 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 

PLATE 

I.  View  of  the  Forum,  looking  toward  Vesuvius.     From  a 

photograph     ........      Frontispiece 

FACING    PAGE 

II.     Court  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo.     From  a  photograph       .       88 

III.  The  Greek  Temple  and   the   Forum   Triangulare,  seen 

from  the  South.     Restoration   (Weichardt,  Piviipeji  vor 

der  Zersionaig,  Taiel  U)       .         .         .         .         .         .         -134 

IV.  The  Barracks  of  the  Gladiators.     From  a  photograph    .     160 
V.     Stabian  Baths  :  Men's  Apodyterium,  with  the  Anteroom 

leading  from  the  Palaestra.     From  a  photograph        .     188 

VI.  Interior    of    the    Amphitheatre,    looking    Northwest. 

From  a  photograph        .  .  .         .  .         .  .  .216 

VII.  Interior  of  a  House  (IX.  v.  11),  looking  from  the  Middle 

OF  THE  Atrium  into  the  Peristyle.     From  a  photograph     260 
VIII.     Two   Wall   Paintings   in   the    House   of   the   Vettii  — 
Apollo    after    the    Slaying    of    the    Dragon,    and 
Agamemnon   in    the    Sanctuary    of    Artemis.      From 
photographs  ......  ...     328 

IX.     A  Dining   Room    in   the    House   of   the  Vettii.     From  a 

photograph   ..........     338 

X.     The  Street  of  Tombs,  looking  toward  the  Herculaneum 

Gate.     From  a  photograph  ......     420 

XI.     Artemis.     Copy  of  an  Archaic  Work.     From  a  photograph.      .     444 
XII.     Specimen   of  Wall  Decoration.     Second  or   Architectural 
Style    (Man,    Gcscliichte    der    decor ativen    IVaiidz/ialerei  in 
Pompeji,  Tafel  V)  ........     462 

XIII.  Specimen  of  Wall  Decoration,  in  the  Court  of  the 
Stabian  Baths.  Fourth  or  Intricate  Style.  From  a  draw- 
ing in  the  Naples  Museum     .......     470 

PLANS 

PLAN 

I.     Outline  Plan  of  Pompeii      ....     preceding  Chap.  V 

II.  The  Forum,  with  Adjoining  Buildings       .  "  "     VII 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLAN 

in.  The   Forum    Triangulare,   with   Adjacext 

Buildings preceding  Chap.     XX 

I\'.  The  Villa  Rustica  near  Boscoreale         .        •'  *'      XLV 

V.  The  Street  of  Tombs "  "  L 

VI.  The  Excavated  Portion  of  Pompeii  .         .     following  the  I nde.x 


ILLUSTRATIONS    IN    THE   TEXT 

'■  PAGE 

Map  of  Ancient  Campania      ........  2 

Vesuvius  as  seen  from  Naples.     From  a  photograph        ...  3 

3.  View  from  Pompeii,  looking  south.     From  a  photograph  (a.  m.)    .  5 

4.  Venus  Pompeiana.     Wall  painting.     House  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Mitr  Mo>ui»ieii/2  deir /iistitiito.\o\.  \\\.  yA.  \\.  l>  ...  12 
An  amphora  from  Boscoreale.     Collection  of  Classical  Antiquities, 

University  of  Michigan.  From  a  drawing  .  .  .  .  •  15 
The   Judgment  of  Solomon.      Wall   painting.     Naples   Museum. 

From  a  photograph     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ■       17 

7.  Cast  of  a  man.     Museum  at  Pompeii.     From  a  photograph     .         .       22 

8.  An   Excavation.     Atrium  of  the    house  of  the    Silver  Wedding. 

From  a  photograph     .........       28 

Wall  with  limestone  framework  (Ins.  VII.  iii.  13).  From  a  photo- 
graph (F.  w.  K.) 2,j 

FaQade  of  Sarno  limestone,  house  of  the  Surgeon.  From  a  photo- 
graph   39 

Quasi-reticulate  facing,  with  brick  corner,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Small  Theatre.     From  a  photograph  ......       42 

Reticulate  facing,  with  corners  of  brick-shaped  stone  (I.  iii.  29). 
From  a  photograph  (f.  w.  k.)      .......       43 

13.  North  end  of  the    Forum,  w^th  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  restored. 

From  an  original  drawing  ^  .  .  .  .  .  .  .         -49 

14.  Remnant  of  the  colonnade  of  Popidius.  at  the  south  end  of  the 

Fonun.     From  a  photograph  (a.  m.)  ......       51 

Part  of  the  new  colonnade,  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Forum. 
From  a  photograph  (a.  m.)  .         .         .         .         ,         .         .       53 

16.  Scene  in  the  Forum  —  a  dealer  in  utensils,  and  a  shoemaker.    Wall 

painting.     Naples  ^luseum.     After  Pitture  di  Ercolano,  Vol.  Ill, 

Pl-  42 55 

17.  Scene   in   the    Forum  —  citizens   reading   a   public    notice.     Wall 

painting.     Naples  Museum.     After  Pitture  di  Ejxolano,  Vol.  Ill, 

pl-  43 56 

18.  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  .  .         .  .         .         .         -63 

19.  Ruins  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter.     From  a  photograph       ...       64 

'  The  original  drawings  are  based  upon  sketches  by  Professor  Mau.     The  drawings  marked  with 
an  asterisk  are  in  the  collection  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute  in  Rome. 


ILLUSrR.VnONS 


FIGURE 


23- 

24. 

25. 
26. 

27. 


29. 
30- 

31' 


32- 

33- 
34- 

35- 
36. 
37- 
38. 

39- 

40. 
41. 

42. 

43- 
44. 

45- 
46. 


Section  of  wall  decoration   in   the  cella  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 

After  Mazois.  Les  Riiiiies   de   I'oiiipa,  Vo\.   Ill,  pi.  36  (Over 

beck-Mau.  Foinpeji,  Fig.  46)        ...... 

Bust   of  Zeus   found   at  Otricoli.     Vatican   Museum.     After  Tafel 

130  of  the  Brunn-Bruckmann  Denkmaeler  .... 
Bust    of  Jupiter   found   at    Pompeii.      Naples    Museum.     From    ; 

photograph  ......... 

Plan  of  the  Basilica         ........ 

View  of  the  Basilica,  looking  toward  the  tribunal.     From  a  photo 

graph  

Exterior  of  the  Basilica,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 
Interior  of  the  Basilica,  looking  toward  tlie  tribunal,  restored.    From 

an  original  drawing     ........ 

Front  of  the  tribunal  of  the   Basilica.     Plan  and  elevation.     From 

an  original  drawing     ........ 

Corner  of  mosaic  floor,  cella  of  the  temple  of  Apollo.    After  Mazois 

Vol.  IV,  pi.  23  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  50)      .... 

Plan  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  ....... 

View  of  the  temple  of  Apollo,  looking  toward  Vesuvius.     From  a 

photograph  ......... 

Section  of  the  entablature  of  the  temple  of  Apollo,  showing  the 

original   form   and   the    restoration  after  the   earthquake  of  63 

After  Mazois,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  21  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  264) 
Temple  of  Apollo,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 
Plan  of  the  buildings  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Forum     . 
Table    of  Standard    Measures.      After   Mazois,   Vol.    Ill,   pi.    40 

(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  23)    . 
Plan  of  the  Macellum     ........ 

View  of  the  Macellum.     From  a  photograph  .... 

The  Macellum,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 

Statue  of  Octavia,  sister  of  Augustus,  found  in  the  chapel  of  the 

Macellum.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph 
Statue  of  Marcellus,  son  of  Octavia,  found  in  the  chapel  of  the 

Macellum.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph 
Plan  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares  ..... 
Sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares,  looking  toward  the  rear,  restored 

From  an  original  drawing.*      (Cf.  Rom.  Mitth.,  1896,  p.  288) 
North  side  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares,  restored.     From  an 

original  drawing.*     (Cf.  Rom.  Mittli..  1896,  p.  289)    . 
Plan  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian     ...... 

Front  of  the  altar  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian.     From 

a  photograph       ......... 

View  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian.     From  a  photograph  . 

The  temple  of  Vespasian,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing.* 

(Cf.  Rom.  Mitth.,  1900,  p.  133) 


^^5 
68 

69 
71 

7?> 
75 

76 

77 

80 
81 

83 

84 
86 

91 

93 
94 
95 
97 

98 

lOI 

102 

103 

104 
106 

107 
108 

109 


ILLUSlRA'riONS 


47- 
48. 

49. 

50. 

51- 
52. 

53- 
54- 
55- 

56. 

57- 
58. 

59- 


60. 
61. 

62. 

63- 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 


69. 
70. 

71- 

72. 
73- 
74- 

75- 
76. 


Plan  of  the  building  of  Eumacliia 

Building   of  Eumachia  —  front   of  tlie   court,   restored.     From   an 

original  drawing 
Building   of   Eumachia  —  rear   of   the    court,   restored.     Erom   an 

original  drawing  ........ 

Fountain  of  Concordia  Augusta.     From  a  photograph  (f.  \v.  k.) 
Plan  of  the  Comitium     ........ 

Plan  of  the  Municipal  Buildings      ...... 

^'iew  of  the  south  end  of  the  Forum.     Erom  a  photograph  (a.  m.) 

Plan  of  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana* 

View  of  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana.     From 

photograph  ......... 

Plan  of  the  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana.  restored* 

Plan  of  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta*  .... 

Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 
Temple  of  F~ortuna  Augusta  —  rear  of  the  cella  with  the  statue  of 

the  goddess,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing.*     (Cf.  A'i?/// 

iWWi..  1896.  p.  280)  

Portico  at  the  entrance  of  the  Forum  Triangulare.     From  a  photo 

gi'aph 

View  of  the  Forum  Triangulare.  looking  toward  \'esuvius.     From 

a  photograph      ........ 

Plan  of  the  Doric  temple  in  the  Forum  Triangulare 
The  Doric  temple,  restored.     Erom  an  original  drawing 
Plan  of  the  Large  Theatre      ...... 

View  of  the  Large  Theatre 

Plan  of  the  Small  Theatre 

View  of  the  Small  Theatre. 

Section  of  a  seat  in  the  Small  Theatre. 

pi.  29  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  loi) 
A  terminal  Atlas  from  the  Small  Theatre. 

pi.  29  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  100)         ..... 
Ornament  at  the  ends  of  the   parapet   in  the   Small    Theatre  — 

lion's   foot.      After    Mazois,    Vol.    IV,   pi.    29   (Overbeck-Mau 

Fig-  99)      

Plan  of  the  Theatre  Colonnade,  showing  its  relation  to  the  two 

theatres       .......... 

A  gladiator's  greave.  Naples  Museum.  From  a  photograph 
A  gladiator's  helmet.  Naples  Museum.  From  a  photograph 
Remains   of  stocks  found   in    the   guard-room   of    the   barracks 

Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph         .... 

Plan  of  the  Palaestra      ........ 

View  of  the  Palaestra,  with  tlie  pedestal,  table,  and  steps.     From  a 

photograph  .......... 


From  a  photograph  . 

From  a  photograph    . 

After  Mazois.  Vol. 


IV 


After  Mazois,  Vol.  IV 


166 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

PIGl'KE  FACE 

•Jl .     Doryphorus.      Statue   found   in  the  Palaestra.      Naples  Museum. 

From  a  photograph     .  .  .  .         .  .         .  .  .167 

78.  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Isis        .  .  .  .         .         .         .         .170 

79.  View  of  the  temple  of  Isis.     From  a  photograph     .  .  .         .172 

80.  The  temple  of  Isis,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing         .  -173 

81.  Scene  from  the  worship  of  Isis  —  the  adoration  of  the  holy  water. 

Wall  painting  from  Herculaneum.  Naples  Museum.  Draw- 
ing, after  a  photograph        .  .  .  .  .  .  .         .177 

82.  Temple  of  Isis.     Part  of  the  facade  of  the  Purgatorium.     After 

Mazois,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  1 1.  and  Piranesi,  Antiquites  de  Fonipei^ 
Vol.  II,  pi.  65 179 

83.  Decoration  of  the  east  side  of  the  Purgatorium  —  Perseus  and  An- 

dromeda, floating  Cupids.     Stucco  reliefs.     After  Mazois,  Vol. 

IV,  pi.  10 180 

84.  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius 183 

85.  Capital  of  a  pilaster  of  the  temple,  with  the  face  of  Zeus  Milichius. 

After  Mazois,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  6  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  62)  .  .184 

86.  Plan  of  the  Stabian  Baths       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .190 

87.  Stabian  Baths  —  interior  of  Frigidarium.     Drawing,  with  indebted- 

ness to  Niccolini,  Le  Case  ed  i  Monuineiiti  di  Ponipei,  Vol.  I, 
Ter//iL'  presso  la  porta  stabiaim,  \)\.  J  .         .         .         .         .191 

88.  Bath  basin  in  the  women's  caldarium  —  longitudinal  and  transverse 

sections,  showing  arrangements  for  heating.  Drawing,  with 
indebtedness  to  von  Duhn  und  Jacobi,  Der  griechische  Tciiipel 
ill  Ponipeji,  pi.  IX 194 

89.  Colonnade  of  the  Stabian  Baths  —  capital  with  section  of  entabla- 

ture.    Drawing  .  .  .  .  .         .  .         .         .198 

90.  Southwest  corner  of  the  palaestra  of  the  Stabian  Baths,  showing 

part  of  the  colonnade  and  wall  decorated  with  stucco  reliefs. 
From  a  photograph     .  .         .  .  .         .  .         .  -199 

91.  Plan  of  the  Bnths  near  the  Forum 202 

92.  Baths  near  the   Forum  —  Interior  of  men's  tepidarium.     From  a 

photograph  .  .  ........     204 

93.  Baths  near  the  Forum  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  men's  calda- 

rium.    Drawing,  after  Cell,  Poi/ipeiana,  edit,  of  1837,  Vol.   II, 

pi.  33,  facing  p.  91 205 

94.  Plan  of  the  Central  Baths 209 

95.  View  of  the  Central   Baths,  looking  from   the   Palaestra  into  the 

tepidarium.     From  a  photograpli  (f.  w.  K.)  .  .         .  .210 

96.  The  Amphitheatre,  seen  from  the  west  side.     From  a  photograph     213 

97.  Preparations    for  the  combat.     Wall  painting  (no  longer  visible) 

in  the  Amphitheatre.  After  Mazois,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  48  (Overbeck- 
Mau,  Fig.  107) .  .     214 

98.  Plan  of  the  Amphitheatre .         .215 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 

99- 
loo. 

lOI. 

I02. 
103. 

104. 
105. 

106. 
107. 
108. 


109. 
I  10. 

III. 

I  12. 

113- 

114. 
115. 
116. 


117. 
118. 
119. 


123. 
124. 


Transverse  section  of  the  Amphitheatre.     After  Mazois.  Vol.  I\' 

pL  46  (Overbeck-Maii.  Fig.  104) 

Plan  of  the  gallery  of  the  Amphitheatre  .... 

Conflict  between  the  Pompeians  and  the  Nucerians.     Wall  paint- 
ing.    Naples  Museum.     After  Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  3 
\'ie\v  of  Abbondanza  Street,  looking  east.     From  a  photograph 
Fountain,  water  tower,  and  street  shrine,  corner  of  Stabian  and 

Nola  streets.     From  a  photograph  (f.  w.  k.)     . 
Plan  of  the  reservoir  west  of  the  Baths  near  the  Foioim 
Ancient  altar  in  new  wall  —  southeast  corner  of  the  Central  Baths 

From  a  photograph  (f.  w.  k.)     . 
Plan  of  a  chapel  of  the  Lares  Compitales  (VIIL  iv.  24) 
Large  street  altar  (VIIL  ii.  23).     From  a  photograph  (f.  w.  k.) 
Plan  of  a  section  of  the  city  wall,  with  a  tower  and  with  stairs 
leading  to  the  top.     After  Mazois.  Vol.  I.  pi.  12  (Overbeck-Mau, 

Fig-  7)         

View  of  the  city  wall,  inside.     From  a  photograph 

Tower  of  the  city  wall,  restored.  After  .Mazois.  Vol.  I.  pi.  13 
(Overbeck-.Mau.  Fig.  8) 

Plan  of  the  Stabian  Gate 

Plan  of  the  Herculaneum  Gate        ...... 

View   of   the    Herculaneum    Gate,    looking    down   the    Street 
Tombs.     From  a  photograph      ...... 

Early  Pompeian  house,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 

Plan  of  a  Pompeian  house       ....... 

Plan  and  section  of  the  vestibule,  threshold,  and  fauces  of  the 
house  of  Pansa.  After  Ivanoff.  Mo?i.  dell'  Inst.,  Vol.  VI,  pi 
28.  3  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  136)  ..... 

A  Tuscan  atrium  —  plan  of  the  roof.  After  Mazois.  Vol.  II.  pi.  ; 
(Overbeck  Mau,  Fig.  139) 

A  Tuscan  atrium  —  section.  After  Mazois.  Vol.  II.  pi.  3  (Over 
beck-Mau.  Fig.  140) 

Corner  of  a  compluvium  with  waterspouts  and  antefixes.  recon- 
structed. (Reconstruction,  Ins.  VII.  iv.  16.)  After  Overbeck- 
Mau,  Fig.  143 

A  Pompeian's  strong  box.  area.  Naples  Museum.  From  photo- 
graph ........... 

Atrium  of  the  house  of  Cornelius  Rufus.  looking  through  the  tabli- 
num  and  andron  into  the  peristyle.     From  a  photograph  . 

End  of  a  bedroom  in  the  house  of  the  Centaur,  decorated  in  the 
first  style.     From  an  original  drawing         ..... 

Plan  of  a  dining  room  with  three  couches       ..... 

Plan  of  a  dining  room  with  an  anteroom  containing  an  altar  for 
libations  (VIIL  v.-vi.  16) 


217 
21S 

231 
232 

234 

235 
236 


238 
239 

241 
243 


244 
246 

2-7 


249 


256 

262 
263 

264 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FIGLIHE  I'AGE 

125.  Hearth  of  the  kitchen  in  the  house  of  the  \^ettii.     From  a  draw- 

ing      ............     267 

126.  Niche  for  the  images  of  the  household  gods,  in  a  corner  of  the 

kitchen  in  the  house  of  Apollo.     From  a  photograph  (f.  w.  k.)     269 

127.  Shrine  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii.     From  a  photograph         .  .     271 

128.  Interior  of  a  house  (VII.  xv.  8)  with  a  second  story  dining  room 

opening  on  the  atrium,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing     .     274. 

129.  Longitudinal   section   of  the    house  with   a  second  story  dining 

room  (VII.  XV.  8)  restored.     From  an  original  drawing    .         .     275 

130.  Plan  of  a  Pompeian  shop.     After  Mazois,  Vol.  II,  pi.  8  (Over- 

beck-Mau,  Fig.  182) 276 

131.  A  shop  for  the  sale  of  edibles,  restored.     After  Mazois,  Vol.  II, 

pi.  8  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  183) 277 

132.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Surgeon    .         .         .         .         .         .         .     280 

133.  A  young  woman  painting  a  herm.     Wall  painting  from  the  house 

of  the  Surgeon.     Naples  Museum.     After  Fittnre  di  Ercolano, 
Vol.  V,  pi.  I 282 

134.  Plan  of  the  house  of  Sallust.     After  Mazois,  Vol.  II,  pi.  35  (Over- 

beck-Mau, Fig.  165) 284 

135.  Atrium  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  looking  through  the  tablinum  and 

colonnade  at  the  rear  into  the  garden,  restored.     From  an  origi- 
nal drawing  ..........     286 

136.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  restored.     From  an 

original  drawing 287 

137.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Faun        .......     288 

138.  Part  of  the  cornice  over  the  large  front  door  of  the  house  of  the 

Faun.     From  an  original  drawing        ......     289 

139.  Facpade   of  the   house   of  the  Faun,  restored.     From  an  original 

drawing        ...........     290 

140.  Border  of  mosaic  with  tragic  masks,  fruits,  flowers,  and  garlands, 

at  the  inner  end   of  the    fauces,   house  of  the   Faun.     Naples 
Museum.     After  Mitsco  Borb.,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  14  (Overbeck-Mau, 

Fig-  315) 290 

141.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  showing  the  large 

atrium,  the  first  peristyle,  and  a  corner  of  the  second  peristyle, 
restored.     From  an  original  drawing  ......     292 

142.  Detail  from  the  mosaic  representing  the  battle  between  Alexander 

and  Darius.     From  a  photograph        ......     294 

143.  Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  showing  the  two 

atriums   with    adjoining   rooms,    restored.     From   an    original 
drawing        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     296 

144.  Plan  of  a  house  near  the  Porta  Marina  (VI.   I\s.  OcciD.  13)         .     298 

145.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  near  the  Porta  Marina,  restored. 

From  an  original  drawing    ........     299 


XX  IIXUSTRATIONS 

FIGt'RE  PAGE 

146.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding 302 

147.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  restored. 

From  an  original  drawing   ........     304 

148.  Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  as  it  was 

before  63.     From  an  original  drawing         .....     307 

149.  Plan  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus 310 

150.  Facade  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus,  restored.     From  an  origi- 

nal drawing  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -311 

151 .  Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus.    From  an  origi- 

nal drawing 312 

152.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet      ......     313 

153.  View  of  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  looking  from  the  middle  of 

the  atrium  toward  the  rear.     From  a  photograph        .         .         -314 

154.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  restored. 

From  an  original  drawing -316 

155.  The  delivery  of  Briseis  to  the  messenger  of  Agamemnon.     Wall 

painting  from  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet.     Naples  Museum. 
After    Miisco   Borb.,   Vol.    IL    pi.    58     (Overbeck-Mau.    Fig. 

311)  317 

156.  The  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia.     Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the 

Tragic  Poet.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph         .         -319 

157.  Exterior  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  restored.     From  an  original 

drawing.*     (Cf.  Tiw//.  J//////.,  1896.  p.  4) 321 

158.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii  * 322 

159.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii.  restored.     From 

an  original  drawing.*     (Cf.  Rdin.  Mittli.,  1896,  pi.  i)        .  .     324 

160.  Transverse  section   of  the  house  of  Vettii,  restored.     From  an 

original  drawling.*     (Cf.  R'ivii.  Mitth.,  1896.  pi.  2)      .         .         .     324 

161.  Base,   capital,   and  section  of  entablature  from  the  colonnade  of 

the    peristyle    in  the  house    of  the   Vettii.     From  a  drawing.* 

(Cf.  i?^w.  J//////.,  1896,  p.  31) 326 

162.  View  of  the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii.  looking  toward 

the  south  end.     From  a  photograph  .....     327 

163.  System  of  wall  division  in  the  large  room  opening  on  the  peristyle 

of  the  house  of  the  Vettii 329 

164.  Psyches   gathering  flowers.     Wall   painting  in  the  house  of  the 

Vettii.     From  a  photograph       .......     330 

165.  Cupids  as  makers  and  sellers  of  oil.     Wall  painting  in  the  house 

of  the  Vettii.     From  a  photograph    ......     332 

166.  Press  for  olives.     From  a  wall  painting  found  at  Herculaneum. 

Naples  Museum.      Drawing  after  Fittiire  di  Ercolano,  Vol.  I, 

pl-35 _/     iii 

167.  Cupids  as  goldsmiths.     Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 

From  a  photograph  ........     334 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Wall   painting   in   the 
(Cf. /ww/.  Mitth..  1896 


FIGURE 

168.     Cupids  gathering  and  pressing  grapes 

house  of  the  Vettii.     From  a  drawing. 

p.  81)  .         .         .  .         .  .        '.  .  .         .     '   .     336 

i6g.     Cupids  as  wine  dealers.     Wail  painting  in  the  house  of  the  \'ettii. 

From  a  photograph  .........     337 

170.  Cupids  celebrating  the  festival  of  \'esta.     W^all  painting  in  the 

house  of  the  \'ettii.     From  a  drawing.*     (Cf.  RoJii.  Mitth.,  1896. 

P-  80) 338 

171.  The  punishment  of  Ixion.     Wall  painting  in  the  hou.se  of  the 

\'ettii.     From  a  photograph      .......     340 

172.  Plan  of  the  house  of  Acceptus  and  Euhodia  (VIII.  v.-vi.  39)         .     341 

173.  Longitudinal  section   of  the    house    of   Acceptus   and    Euhodia, 

restored.     From  an  original  drawing  .....     342 

174.  Plan  of  a  house  without  a  compluvium*  (V.  v.  2)  .  .  .     343 

175.  Transverse  section  of  the  house  without  a  compluvium,  restored. 

From  an  original  drawing.*     (Cf  Rom.  MittJi.,  1895,  p.  148)        .     344 

176.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  (VIII.  ii.  39)     .  .     345 

177.  Bake  room  of  the  house  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  IL  at  the  time  of 

excavation.      After   Mazois,    Vol.    IL    pi.    34  (Overbeck-Mau. 
Lig.  4) 346 

178.  Capital  of  a  pilaster  at  the  entrance  of  the  house  of  the  Sculptured 

Capitals  (VII.  iv.  57).     F"rom  a  photograph      ....     349 

179.  Plan  of  the  house  of  Pansa  (\'I.  vi.  i)  .....     350 

180.  Section  showing  a  part  of  the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Anchor 

(\T.  X.  7),  restored.     From  an  original  drawing        .  .  -351 

181.  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Citharist  (I.  iv.  5)   .....     352 

182.  Orestes  and  Pylades  before  Thoas.     Wall  painting  from  the  house 

of  the  Citharist.     Naples  Mu.seum.     From  a  photograph  .         .     353 

183.  Plan  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes         .......     356 

184.  Longitudinal  section  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes.  restored.     From 

an  original  drawing,  in  part  based  on  Ivanoff,  Arc/iitektonisc/te 
Stiidien,  Vol.  II.  pi.  5.  6 358 

185.  Hot-water  tank  and  reservoir  for  supplying  the  bath  in  the  Villa 

Rustica  at  Boscoreale.     Museo  de  Prisco,  Pompeii.     From  a 
drawing.*     (Cf.  Rd//i.  Mitth..  1894,  p.  353)       ....     362 

186.  Olive  crusher  found  in  the  Villa  Rustica  at  Boscoreale.     Mus^o  de 

Prisco.     From  a  photograph     .......     365 

187.  Silver  patera,  with  a  representation  of  the  city  of  Alexandria. 

Boscoreale  treasure.  Louvre.     After  H.  de  Villefosse.  Le  tresor 

de  Boscoreale,  pi.  i     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     366 

188.  Dining  couch  with   bronze   mountings,  the  wooden  frame  being 

restored.     Naples  Museum.     After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  228       .     367 
i8g.     Round  marble  table.     Naples  Museum.     After  Museo  Borb..  Vol. 

IV.  pi.  56  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  229) 368 


xxii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

190.  Carved  table  leg.  found  in  the  second  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the 

Faun.      Naples  Museum.      After  Museo  Borb.,  Vol.  LX.  pi.  43 
(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  229)  .......     368 

191.  Bronze  stand  with  an  ornamental  rim  around  the  top.     Naples 

Museum.     From  a  photograph  ......     369 

192.  Lamps  of  the  simplest  form,  with  one  nozzle.     Naples  Museum. 

After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  231    .         .         .         .         .         .         .     370 

193.  Lamps   with    two   nozzles.      Naples  Museum.      After   Overbeck- 

Mau.  Fig.  231 370 

194.  Lamps  with   more   than  two  nozzles.      Naples  Museum.      After 

Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  231   .         .  .  .  .  .  .  .     370 

195.  Bronze  lamps  with  ornamental  covers  attached  to  a  chain.     Naples 

Museum.     After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  231  .  .  .  -371 

196.  Bronze  lamps  with  covers  ornamented  with  figures.     Naples  Mu- 

seum.    After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  231        .         .         .         .         -371 

197.  Three  hanging  lamps.     Naples  Museum.     After  Overbeck-Mau. 

Fig.  231 372 

198.  A  nursing-bottle,  biberon.      Naples  Museum.      After   Overbeck- 

Mau,  Fig.  231 372 

199.  Lamp  standard  of  bronze.     Naples  Museum.     XiXer  Museo  Borb., 

Yo\.  W.  pi.  57  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  234)  ....     2i72) 

200.  Lamp  holder  for  a  hand  lamp.     Naples  Museum.     After  Overbeck- 

Mau,  Fig.  233 374 

201.  Lamp  holder  for  hanging  lamps.     Naples  Museum.     Ah&r  Museo 

Borb.,  Vol.  II.  pi.  13  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  233)  .         .         .     374 

202.  Lamp  holder  in  the  form  of  a  tree  trunk.     Naples  Museum.     After 

Overbeck-Mau.  Tig.  233    ........     374 

203.  Lamp  stand.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph    .  .  .     374 

204.  Bronze  utensils.     Naples  Museum.    After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  241. 

and  Museo  Borb.       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -375 

205.  Mixing  bowl,  of  bronze,  in  part  inlaid  with  silver.     Naples  .Mu- 

seum.    After  Museo  Borb.,  Vo].  II.  pi.  32  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig. 
248) 376 

206.  Water  heater  for  the  table,  view  and  section.     Naples  Museum. 

After  Museo  Borb.,  Vol.  Ill,  pi.  63  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  240)    .     376 

207.  Water  heater  in  the  form  of  a  brazier.     Naples  Museum.     After 

Museo  Borb..  Vol.  II.  pi.  46  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  238)       .  .     377 

208.  Water  heater  in  the  form  of  a  brazier,  representing  a  diminutive 

fortress.     Naples  Museum.     After  Museo  Borb.,  Yo\.  II,  pi.  46 
(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  238) 377 

209.  Appliances  for  the  bath.      After  Museo  Borb..  Vol.  VII.  pi.   16 

(Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.  251) 377 

210.  Combs.     After  Museo  Borb..  Vol.  IX.  pi.  15  (Overbeck-Mau.  Fig. 

252) 377 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


XXlll 


FIGURE 

211.  Hairpins,  with  two  small  ivory  toilet  boxes.     After  Mttseo  Borb  , 

Vol.  IX.  pis.  14,  15  (Overbeclv-Mau,  Fig.  252)  .         .         .         . 

212.  Glass  box  for  cosmetics.     After  Mitseo  Borb.,   Vol.    LX,  pi.    15 

(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  252)         ...... 

213.  Hand  mirrors.     After  Miiseo   Borb.,  \'ol.   IX,  pi.   14  (Overbeck 

Mau,  Fig.  252) 

214.  Group  of  toilet  articles.     i\hQ\-  Miiseo  Borb.,  Yo\.  IX,  pi.  15  (Over- 

beck-Mau, Fig.  252)  ........ 

215.  Gold  arm  band.     After  M/tseo  Borb.,  Vol.  VII,  pi.  46  (Overbeck 

Mau,  Fig.  318) 

216  a-d.     Silver  cups.     Naples  Museum.     After  Museo  Borb..  Vol.  XI 

pi.  45  ;  Vol.  XIII,  pi.  49;   Overbeck-Mau.  pi.  facing  p.  624 
216  t'.     Detail  of  cup  with  centaurs         ...... 

217.  Silver  cup.     Bo.scoreale  treasure.  Louvre.     After  H.  de  Villefosse 

Le  iresor  de  Boscoreah\  }il.  8      . 

218.  Ruins  of  a  bakery,  with  millstones  (\'II.  ii.  22).      From  a  photo- 

graph       .......... 

219.  Plan  of  a  bakery  (VI.  iii.  3)  .... 

220.  A  Pompeian  mill,  without  the  framework 

221.  Section  of  a  mill,  restored.     From  an  original  drawing 

222.  A  mill  in  operation.     Relief  in  the  Vaticin  Museum.     After  Ber 

der  Scic/is.  Gesellschaft,  1861.  pi.  xii.  2 

223.  Section  of  a  bake  oven  (VI.  iii.  3).     After  Mazois,  Vol.  II.  pi.  18 

(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  192) 

224.  Kneading  machine,  restored   (VI.  xiv.  35).      From  an  original 

drawing    ...... 

225.  Scene  in  a  fullery  —  treading  vats.     Wall  painting.     Naples  Mu- 

seum.    After  Miiseo  Borb.,   Vol.   W ,  pi.    49    (0\erbeck-Mau, 

Fig-  195)  

226.  Scene  in  a  fullery  —  inspection  of  cloth,  carding,  bleaching  frame 

Wall  painting.     Naples  Museum.     Mi^x  Musco  Borb.,Vo\.  W 
pi.  49  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  194) 

227.  A  fuller's  press.     Wall  painting.     Naples  Museum.     After  Musec 

Borb.,  Vol.  IV,  pl.  50  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  196) 

228.  Plan  of  a  fullery  (VI.  xiv.  22)       ...... 

229.  Plan  of  the  vat  room  of  the  tannery  (I.  v.  2) 

230.  Mosaic  top  of  the   table  in  the  garden  of  the  tannery.     Naples 

Museum.     From  a  photograph 

231.  Plan  of  an  inn  (VII.  .xii.  35) 

232.  Plan  of  the  inn  of  Hermes  (I.  i.  8) 

233.  Plan  of  a  wineshop  (VI.  x.  i) 

234.  Scene  in  a  wineshop.     Wall  painting  (VI. 

Borb.,  Vol.  IV,  pl.  A        . 

235.  Delivery  of  wine.     Wall  painting  (VH.  x.  i) 

\'ol.  IV.  pl.  A     .... 


X.  i).  After  Museo 
After  Museo  Borb 


378 

378 

378 

378 

379 

379 
380 

382 

386 
388 
389 
389 

390 

391 

391 

394 

394 

395 
396 
398 

399 
401 
402 
402 

403 

403 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 
236. 

237- 

238. 
239- 

240. 


241. 
242. 

243- 

244. 

245. 

246. 
247. 

248. 

249. 

250. 

251. 

252. 

253- 
254. 
255. 
256. 
257. 
258. 


Sepulchral  benches  of  Veius  and  Mamia  ;  tombs  of  Porcius  and 

the  Istacidii.     From  a  photograph  (A.  m.)         .... 
The  tomb  of  the   Istacidii,  restored.      From  an  original  draw- 
ing   

View  of  the  Street  of  Tombs.     From  a  photograph 

Glass  vase,  with  vintage  scene,  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  Blue 

Glass  Vase.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph 
Bust  stone  of  Tyche,  slave  of  Julia  Augusta.     After  Mazois,  Vol 

I,  p.  31  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  223),  with  the  correction  in  the 

spelling  of  the  name  tyche 
Relief,  symbolic  of  grief  for  the  dead.     After  Mazois,  Vol.  I.  pi.  29 

(Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  221) 
Front  of  the  tomb  of  Calventius  Quietus,  with  bisellium.     From  a 

photograph       ......... 

End  of  the  tomb  of  Naevolcia  Tyche,  with  relief  representing  : 

ship  entering  port.     From  a  photograph  .... 
Cinerary  urn  in  a  lead  case.     After  Mazois.  Vol.  I.  pi.  22  (Over 

beck-Mau,  Fig.  213) 

Sepulchral    enclosure,    with    triclinium    funebre 

Vol.  1,  pi.  20  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  210) 
Plan  of  the  tombs  east  of  the  Amphitheatre* 
View  of  two  tombs  east  of   the  Amphitheatre. 

graph  (F.  w.  K.)        . 
View  of  other  tombs  east  of  the  Amphitheatre 

graph  (f.  w.  k.)       ........ 

Four-faced  Ionic  capital.      Portico   of  the    Fomm    Triangulare 

After  Overbeck-Mau.  Fig.   272  ..... 

Capital  of  pilaster.     Casa  del  duca  d'Aumale.     After  Overbeck- 
Mau,  Fig.  274  .  .  .  . 
Altar  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius.     After  Mazois 

Vol.  IV,  pi.  6  (Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  63)  . 
Capitals  of  columns,  showing  variations  from  typical  forms.     After 

Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  274  ....... 

Capital  of  pilaster,  modified  Corinthian  type.     After  Overbeck 

Mau,  Fig.  274 

Capitals  of  pilasters,  showing  free  adaptation  of  the  Corinthian 

type.     After  Overbeck-Mau,  Fig.  274        .... 
Statue   of  the   priestess    Eumachia.     Naples   Museum.     From 

photograph       ......... 

Portrait  herm  of  Caecilius  Jucundus.     Naples  Museum.     From  a 

photograph       ...... 

Double  bust,  Bacchus  and  a  bacchante.     Garden  of  tlie  house  ot 

the  Vettii.     From  a  photograph        ..... 
Dancing  Satyr.     Bronze  statuette  found  in  the  house  of  the  Faun 

Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph      .... 


After    Mazois 

From  a  plioto 
From  a  photo 


409 

411 
414 

416 


418 
421 
422 
423 
424 


425 
431 

432 
434 
439 
439 
440 
442 
443 
443 
446 

447 

448 

451 


ILLUSFRATIONS 


259.  Listening    Dionysus,  wrongly   identified    as    Narcissus.      Bronze 

statuette  in  tlie  Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph      .  .     452 

260.  Bronze  youth,  found  in  November,  1900.     Naples  Museum.     From 

a  photograph    ..........     454 

261.  Wall  decoration  in  the  atrium  of  the  house  of  Sallust.     First  or 

Incrustation   Style.     After  Tafel   II   of  Man's    Geschichte  der 
decor ativeii  Watidmalcrei  i)i  Fo)npeji        .....     460 

262.  Distribution  of  colors  in  the  section  of  wall  represented  in  Fig.  261      461 

263.  Specimen  of  wall  decoration  in  the  house  of  Spurius  Mesor  (VII. 

iii.   29).     Third   or  Ornate  style.     After  Tafel  XII   of  Mau's 
W'andmalerei    ..........     466 

264.  Detailof  wall  decoration.     Fourth  style.     Naples  Museum.     After 

Pitt  arc  di  Ercolano,Vo\.\\[ .  ^\.  ^-j 468 

265.  Specimen  of  wall  decoration.     Fourth  style.     From  a  copy  in  the 

Naples  Museum  (showing  decoration  that  has  disappeared)      .     469 

266.  A  fruit  piece,  Xenion.     Wall  painting.     Naples   Museum.     After 

Pittjire  di  Ercolano.\o\.  \\.]i\.  l"?) 474 

267.  A  landscape.     Wall  painting.     Naples  Museum.     M^^x  Pitt  lire  di 

Ercolano^  Vol.  V,  p.  149 475 

268.  A  group  of  women,  one  of  whom  is  sounding  two-stringed  instru- 

ments.    Wall  painting.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph     476 

269.  Paquius  Proculus  and  his  wife.     Wall  painting.     Naples  Museum. 

From  a  photograph  ........     477 

270.  The  grief  of  Hecuba.     Fragment  of  a  wall  painting.     House  of 

Caecilius  Jucundus.      After  Ann.  dcW  Inst..  1877,  Tafel  P.         .     479 

271.  Athena's   pipes   and  the   fate  of  Marsyas.     Wall  painting  (V.  ii. 

10).     Naples  Museum.     From  a  drawing.*      {Qi.  Rom.  Miitli.. 
1890,  p.  267) •         .         .     482 

272.  The  fall  of  Icarus.     Wall  painting  (\'.  ii.  10).     From  a  drawing.* 

(Cf.  Rom.  Mi/t/i..  1890,  p.  264) 483 

273.  Zeus  and  Hera  on  Mt.  Ida.     Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the 

Tragic  Poet.     Naples  Museum.     From  a  photograph        .         .     484 

274.  Tablet  with  three  leaves,  opened  so  as  to  show  the  receipt  and 

part  of  the  memorandum,  restored.     After  Overbeck-Mau,  pi. 
facing  p.  489    ..........     500 

275       Tablet  restored,  with  the  two  leaves  containing  the  receipt  tied 

and  sealed.     After  Overbeck-Mau,  pi.  facing  p.  489  .         .     501 


INTRODUCTION 
CHAPTER   I 

THE  SITUATION  OF  POMPEII 

From  Gaeta,  where  the  south  end  of  the  Volscian  range 
borders  abruptly  upon  the  sea,  to  the  peninsula  of  Sorrento,  a 
broad  gulf  stretched  in  remote  ages,  cutting  its  way  far  into  the 
land.  Its  waves  dashed  upon  the  base  of  the  mountains  which 
now,  rising  with  steep  slope,  mark  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
Campanian  Plain  —  Mt.  Tifata  above  Capua,  Mt.  Taburno  back 
of  Nola,  and  lying  across  the  southeast  corner,  the  huge  mass 
of  Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  whose  sharply  defined  line  of  elevation 
is  continued  in  the  heights  of  Sorrento. 

This  gulf  was  transformed  by  volcanic  agencies  into  a  fertile 
plain.  Here  two  fissures  in  the  earth's  crust  cross  each  other, 
each  marked  by  a  series  of  extinct  or  active  volcanoes.  One 
fissure  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  Italian  Peninsula ;  along 
it  lie  Monti  Berici  near  Vicenza,  Mt.  Amiata  below  Chiusi,  the 
lakes  of  Bolsena  and  Bracciano  filling  extinct  craters,  the  Alban 
Mountains,  and  finally  Stromboli  and  Aetna.  The  other  runs 
from  east  to  west ;  its  direction  is  indicated  by  Mt.  Vulture 
near  Venosa,  Mt.  Epomeo  on  the  island  of  Ischia,  and  the 
Ponza  Islands. 

At  three  places  in  the  old  sea  basin  the  subterranean  fires 
burst  forth.  Near  the  north  shore  rose  the  great  volcano  of 
Rocca  Monfina,  which  added  itself  to  the  Volscian  Mountains, 
and  heaping  the  products  of  its  eruptions  upon  Mons  Massicus, 
—  once  an  island,  —  formed  with  this  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  plain.  Toward  the  middle  the  numerous  small  vents  of  the 
Phlegraean  Fields  threw  up  the  low  heights,  to  which  the  north 


2   '  POMPEII 

shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  —  Posihpo,  Baiae,  Misenum — is 
indebted  for  its  incomparable  beauty  of  landscape.  Finally, 
near  the  south  shore,  at  the  intersection  of  the  fissures,  the 
massive  cone  of  Vesuvius  rose,  in  complete  isolation  —  the 
only  volcano  on  the  continent  of  Europe  still  remaining  active. 
Its  base  on  the  southwest  is  washed  by  the  sea,  while  on  the 
other  sides  a  stretch   of   level   country  separates  it  from   the 


Fig.  I.  —  Map  of  Ancient  Campania. 


mountains  that  hem  in  the  plain.  On  the  side  opposite  from 
the  sea,  however,  Vesuvius  comes  so  near  to  the  mountains 
that  we  may  well  say  that  it  divides  the  Campanian  plain  into 
two  parts,  of  which  the  larger,  on  the  northwest  side,  is  drained 
by  the  Volturno ;  the  small  southeast  section  is  the  plain  of  the 
Sarno. 

The  Sarno,  like  the  Umbrian  Clitumnus,  has  no  upper  course. 
At  the  foot  of  Mt.  Taburno,  bounding  the  plain  on  the  north- 


THE    SrrL^\TlON    OF    POMPEII  3 

east,  are  five  copious  springs  that  soon  unite  to  form  a  stream. 
Since  1843  f^ie  river  has  been  drawn  off  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation into  three  channels,  which  are  graded  at  different  levels ; 
the  distribution  of  water  thus  assured  makes  this  part  of  Cam- 
pania one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  in  Italy.  In  antiquity  the 
Sarno  must  have  been  confined  to  a  single  channel ;  according 
to  Strabo  it  was  navigable  for  ships. 

In  Roman  times  three  cities  shared  in  the  possession  of  the 
Sarno  plain  Furthest  inland,  facing  the  pass  in  the  mountains 
that  opens  toward  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  lay  Nuceria,  now  Nocera. 
On  the  seashore,  where  the  coast  road  to  Sorrento  branches  off 


Fig.  2.  —  Vesuvius  as  seen  from  Naples. 


toward  the  southwest,  was  Stabiae,  now  Castellammare.  North 
of  Stabiae,  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  Pompeii  stood,  on  an  eleva- 
tion overlooking  the  Sarno,  formed  by  the  end  of  a  stream  of 
lava  that  in  some  past  age  had  flowed  from  Vesuvius  down 
toward  the  sea.  Pompeii  thus  united  the  advantages  of  an 
easily  fortified  hill  town  with  those  of  a  maritime  city.  "  It 
lies,"  says  Strabo,  "on  the  Sarnus,  which  accommodates  a 
traffic  in  both  imports  and  exports  ;  it  is  the  seaport  of  Nola, 
Nuceria,  and  Acerrae." 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  how  conveniently  situated 
Pompeii  was  to  serve  as  a  seaport  for  Nola  and  Nuceria ; 
but  it  seems  hardly  credible  that  the  inhabitants  of  Acerrae, 
which  lay  much  nearer  Naples,  should  have  preferred  for  their 


4  POMPEII 

marine  traffic  the  circuitous  route  around  Vesuvius  to  the  Sarno. 
However  that  may  have  been,  Pompeii  was  beyond  doubt  the 
most  important  town  in  the  Sarno  plain. 

Pompeii  formerly  lay  nearer  the  sea  and  nearer  the  river 
than  at  present.  In  the  course  of  the  centuries  alluvial  deposits 
have  pushed  the  shore  line  further  and  further  away.  It  is 
now  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  from  the  nearest  point  of  the 
city  to  the  sea ;  in  antiquity  it  was  less  than  a  third  of  a  mile. 
The  line  of  the  ancient  coast  can  still  be  traced  by  means  of  a 
clearly  marked  depression,  beyond  which  the  stratification  of 
the  volcanic  deposits  thrown  out  in  79  does  not  reach.  The 
Sarno,  too,  now  flows  nearly  two  thirds  of  a  mile  from  Pompeii ; 
in  antiquity,  according  to  all  indications,  it  was  not  more  than 
half  so  far  away. 

In  point  of  climate  and  outlook,  a  fairer  site  for  a  city  could 
scarcely  have  been  chosen.  The  Pompeian,  living  in  clear  air, 
could  look  down  upon  the  fogs  which  in  the  wet  season  fre- 
quently rose  from  the  river  and  spread  over  the  plain.  And 
while  in  winter  Stabiae,  lying  on  the  northwest  side  of  Monte 
Sant'  Angelo,  enjoyed  the  sun  for  only  a  few  hours,  the  eleva- 
tion on  which  Pompeii  stood,  sloping  gently  toward  the  east  and 
south,  more  sharply  toward  the  west,  was  bathed  in  sunlight 
during  the  entire  day. 

Winter  at  Pompeii  is  mild  and  short ;  spring  and  autumn 
are  long.  The  heat  of  summer,  moreover,  is  not  extreme.  In 
the  early  morning,  it  is  true,  the  heat  is  at  times  oppressive. 
No  breath  of  air  stirs ;  and  we  look  longingly  off  upon  the 
expanse  of  sea  where,  far  away  on  the  horizon,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Capri,  a  dark  line  of  rippling  waves  becomes  visible. 
Nearer  it  comes,  and  nearer.  About  ten  o'clock  it  reaches 
the  shore.  The  leaves  begin  to  rustle,  and  in  a  few  moments 
the  sea  breeze  sweeps  over  the  city,  strong,  cool,  and  invigo- 
rating. The  wind  blows  till  just  before  sunset.  The  early 
hours  of  the  evening  are  still ;  the  pavements  and  the  walls 
of  the  houses  give  out  the  heat  which  they  have  absorbed 
during  the  day.  But  soon  —  perhaps  by  nine  o'clock  —  the 
tree  tops  again  begin  to  murmur,  and  all  night  long,  from  the 
mountains  of    the   interior,   a  gentle,  refreshing   stream  of    air 


THE    SITUATION    OF    POMPEII  5 

flows  down  through  the  gardens,  the  roomy  atriums  and 
colonnades  of  the  houses,  the  silent  streets,  and  the  buildings 
about  the  Forum,  with  an  effect  indescribably  soothing. 

How  shall  I  undertake  to  convey  to  the  reader  who  has 
not  visited  Pompeii,  an  impression  of  the  beauty  of  its  situa- 
tion ?  Words  are  weak  when  confronted  with  the  reality.  Sea, 
mountains,  and  plain,  —  strong  and  pleasing  background,  —  great 


P 


Fig.  3.  —  View  from  Pompeii,  looking  south. 


masses  and  brilliant  yet  harmonious  colors,  splendid  foreground 
effects  and  hazy  vistas,  undisturbed  nature  and  the  handiwork 
of  man,  all  are  blended  into  a  landscape  of  the  grand  style, 
the  like  of  which  I  should  not  know  where  else  to  look  for. 

If  we  turn  toward  the  south,  we  have  at  our  feet  the  level 
plain  of  the  Sarno,  in  antiquity  as  now  —  we  may  suppose  —  not 
checkered  with  villages  but  dotted  here  and  there  with  groups 
of  farm  buildings,  surrounded  with  stately  trees.  Beyond  the 
plain  rises  the  loftv  barrier  of  Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  thickly  wooded 


6  POMPEII 

in  places,  its  summit  standing  out  against  the  sky  in  a  long, 
beautiful  profile,  which,  toward  the  right,  breaks  up  into  bold, 
rugged  notches  ;  the  side  of  the  mountain  below  is  richly  di- 
versified with  deep  valleys,  projecting  ridges,  and  terraces  that 
in  the  distance  seem  like  steps,  where  among  vineyards  and 
olive  orchards  stand  two  villages  fair  to  look  on,  Gragnano 
and  Lettere,  so  near  that  individual  houses  can  be  clearly 
distinguished.  Further  west  the  plain  before  us  opens  out 
upon  the  sea,  while  the  mountains  are  continued  in  the  pre- 
cipitous coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Sorrento.  Height  crowds 
upon  height,  with  villages  wreathed  in  olive  orchards  lying 
between.  Here  the  hills  descend  in  terraces  to  the  sea,  covered 
with  vegetation  to  the  water's  edge ;  there  the  covering  of  soil 
has  been  cast  off  from  the  steep  slopes,  exposing  the  naked 
rock,  which  shines  in  the  afternoon  sun  with  a  reddish  hue  that 
wonderfully  accords  with  the  dark  shades  of  the  foliage  and  the 
brilliant  blue  of  the  sea.  Further  on  the  tints  become  duller, 
and  th6  sight  is  blurred  ;  only  with  effort  can  we  distinguish  Sor- 
rento, resting  on  cliffs  that  rise  almost  perpendicularly  from  the 
line  of  the  shore.  Further  still  the  outline  of  the  peninsula 
sinks  into  the  sea  and  gives  place  to  Capri,  island  of  fantastic 
shape,  whose  crags  rising  sheer  from  the  water  stand  out 
sharply  in  the  bright  sunlight. 

But  we  look  toward  the  north,  and  the  splendid  variety  of 
form  and  color  vanishes  ;  there  stands  only  the  vast,  sombre 
mass  of  the  great  destroyer,  Vesuvius,  towering  above  the  city 
and  the  plain.  The  sun  as  it  nears  the  horizon  veils  the  bare 
ashen  cone  with  a  mantle  of  deep  violet,  while  the  cloud  of 
smoke  that  rises  from  the  summit  shines  with  a  golden  glow. 
Far  above  the  base  the  sides  are  covered  with  vineyards,  among 
which  small  groups  of  white  houses  can  here  and  there  be  seen. 
West  of  us  the  outline  of  the  mountain  descends  in  a  strong, 
simple  curve  to  the  sea.  Just  before  it  blends  with  the 
shore  there  rise  behind  it  distant  heights  wrapped  in  blue 
haze,  the  first  of  moderate  elevation,  then  others  more  promi- 
nent and  further  to  the  left.  They  are  the  heights  along  the 
north  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  —  Gaurus  crowned  with 
the  monastery  of  Camaldoli,  famous  for  its  magnificent  view ; 


THE    SITUATION    OF   POMPEII  7 

the  cliffs  of  Baiae,  the  promontory  of  Misenum,  and  the  lofty 
cone  of  Epomeo  on  the  island  of  Ischia.  So  the  eye  trav- 
erses the  whole  expanse  of  the  Bay ;  Naples  itself,  hidden 
from  our  view,  lies  between  those  distant  heights  and  the  base 
of  Vesuvius. 

But  meanwhile  the  sun  has  set  behind  Misenum ;  its  last  rays 
are  lighting  up  the  cloud  of  smoke  above  Vesuvius  and  the 
summit  of  Monte  Sant'  Angelo.  The  brilliancy  of  coloring  has 
faded ;  the  weary  eye  finds  rest  in  the  soft  afterglow.  We  also 
may  take  leave  of  these  beautiful  surroundings,  and  inquire  into 
the  beginnings  of  the  city  which  was  founded  here. 


CHAPTER  II 

BEFORE  79 

When  Pompeii  was  founded  we  do  not  know.  It  is  more 
than  likely  that  a  site  so  well  adapted  for  a  city  was  occupied 
at  an  early  date.  The  oldest  building,  the  Doric  temple  in  the 
Forum  Triangulare,  is  of  the  style  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. ; 
we  are  safe  in  assuming  that  the  city  was  then  already  in  exist- 
ence.^ The  founders  were  Oscans.  They  belonged  to  a  widely 
scattered  branch  of  the  Italic  stock,  whose  language,  closely  re- 
lated with  the  Latin,  has  been  imperfectly  recovered  from  a  con- 
siderable number  of  inscriptions,  so  imperfectly  that  in  each  of 
the  longer  inscriptions  there  still  remain  words  the  meaning 
of  which  is  obscure  or  doubtful.  From  this  language  the  name 
of  the  city  came;  for  poinpc  in  Oscan  meant  '  five.'  The  word 
does  not,  however,  appear  in  its  simple  form ;  we  have  only  the 
adjective  derived  from  it,  pompaiians,  '  Pompeian.'  If  we  are 
right  in  assuming  that  the  name  appeared  in  Oscan,  as  it  does 
in  Latin,  in  the  plural  form,  it  was  probably  applied  first  to  a 
gens,  or  clan,  and  thence  to  the  city  ;  the  Latin  equivalent  of 
Pompeii  would  be  Quintii.  Pompeii  was  thus  the  city  of  the 
clan  of  the  Pompeys,  as  Tarquinii  was  the  city  of  the  Tarquins, 
and  Veii  the  city  of  the  Veian  clan.  The  name  Pompeius  was 
common  in  Pompeii  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  city,  and  in 
other  Campanian  towns,  notably  Puteoli,  to  much  later  times. 

In  order  to  follow  the  course  of  events  at  Pompeii,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  pass  briefly  in  review  the  main  points  in  the  his- 
tory  of   Campania.     The   Campanian   Oscans,    sprung   from   a 

1  It  seems  strange  that  traces  of  other  buildings  of  the  same  period  have  not  been 
discovered;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  far  from  probal:)le  that  the  temple  was  first 
erected,  and  that  the  city  afterward  grew  up  around  it,  for  in  that  case  the  temple 
must  have  been  placed  further  west,  on  the  highest  point  of  the  elevation,  overlook- 
ing the  sea. 

8 


BEFORE    79  9 

rude  and  hardy  race,  became  civilized  from  contact  with  the 
Greeks,  who  at  an  early  period  had  settled  in  Cumae,  in  Dicae- 
archia,  afterward  Puteoli,  and  in  Parthenope,  later  Naples ;  and 
the  coast  climate  had  an  enervating  effect  upon  them.  When 
toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  the  Samnites,  kinsmen 
of  the  Oscans,  left  their  rugged  mountain  homes  in  the  interior 
and  pressed  down  toward  the  coast,  the  Oscans  were  unable  to 
cope  with  them.  In  424  b.c.  the  Samnites  stormed  and  took 
Capua,  in  420,  Cumae ;  and  Pompeii  likewise  fell  into  their 
hands.  But  they  were  no  more  successful  than  the  Oscans  had 
been  in  resisting  the  influence  of  Greek  culture.  How  strong 
this  influence  was  may  be  seen  in  the  remains  at  Pompeii.  The 
architecture  of  the  period  was  Greek ;  Greek  divinities  were 
honored,  as  Apollo  and  Zeus  Milichius ;  and  the  standard  meas- 
ures of  the  vtensa  pondcraria  were  inscribed  with  Greek  names. 

In  less  than  a  hundred  years  new  strifes  arose  between  the 
more  cultured  Samnites  of  the  plain  and  their  rough  and  war- 
like kinsmen  in  the  mountains.  But  Rome  took  a  part  in  the 
struggle,  and  in  the  Sanniite  Wars  (343-290  e.g.)  brought  both 
the  men  of  the  mountains  and  the  men  of  the  plain  under  her 
dominion.  Although  the  sovereignty  of  Rome  took  the  form 
of  a  perpetual  alliance,  the  cities  in  reality  lost  their  indepen- 
dence. The  complete  subjugation  and  Romanizing  of  Cam- 
pania, however,  did  not  come  till  the  time  of  the  Social  War 
(90-88  B.C.)  and  the  supremacy  of  Sulla  ;  the  Samnites  staked 
all  on  the  success  of  the  popular  party,  and  lost. 

In  the  narrative  of  these  events  Pompeii  is  not  often  men- 
tioned. At  the  time  of  the  Second  Samnite  War,  in  the  year  310 
B.C.,  we  read  that  a  Roman  fleet  under  Publius  Cornelius  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Sarno,  and  that  a  pillaging  expedition  fol- 
lowed the  course  of  the  river  as  far  as  Nuceria ;  but  the  country 
folk  fell  on  the  marauders  as  they  were  returning,  and  forced 
them  to  give  up  their  booty.  We  have  no  definite  information 
regarding  the  attitude  of  the  Pompeians  after  the  battle  of 
Cannae  (216  b.c);  probably  they  joined  the  side  of  Hannibal, 
who,  however,  was  defeated  by  Marcus  Marcellus  near  Nola  in 
the  following  year,  and  was  obliged  to  leave  Campania  to  the 
Romans. 


10  POMPEII 

In  the  Social  War,  when,  in  the  summer  of  90  b.c,  the  Sam- 
nite  army  marched  into  Campania,  Pompeii  aUied  itself  with 
the  insurgents ;  as  a  consequence,  in  89,  it  was  besieged  by 
Sulla,  but  without  success.  Two  years  later,  Sulla  went  to  Asia 
to  conduct  the  war  against  Mithridates.  Returning  victorious 
in  the  spring  of  83  B.C.,  he  led  his  army  into  Campania,  where 
he  spent  the  winter  of  83-82  ;  his  soldiers,  grown  brutal  in  the 
Asiatic  war  and  accustomed  to  every  kind  of  license,  may  have 
proved  unwelcome  guests  for  the  Pompeians. 

The  sequel  came  in  the  year  80,  when  a  colony  of  Roman 
veterans  was  settled  in  Pompeii  under  the  leadership  of  Publius 
Sulla,  a  nephew  of  the  Dictator.  Cicero  later  made  a  speech 
in  behalf  of  this  Sulla,  defending  him  against  the  charge  that 
he  had  taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  and  had  tried  to 
induce  the  old  residents  of  Pompeii  to  join  in  the  plot.  From 
this  speech  we  learn  that  Sulla's  reorganization  of  the  city  was 
accomplished  with  so  great  regard  for  the  interests  of  the 
Pompeians,  that  they  ever  after  held  him  in  grateful  remem- 
brance. We  learn,  also,  that  soon  after  the  founding  of  the 
colony  disputes  arose  between  the  old  residents  and  the  colonists, 
about  the  public  walks  {ambnlationcs)  and  matters  connected 
with  the  voting ;  the  arrangements  for  voting  had  probably 
been  so  made  as  to  throw  the  decision  always  into  the  hands 
of  the  colonists.  The  controversy  was  referred  to  the  patrons 
of  the  colony,  and  settled  by  them.  From  this  time  on,  the  life 
of  Pompeii  seems  not  to  have  differed  from  that  of  the  other 
small  cities  of  Italy. 

As  the  harbor  of  Pompeii  was  on  the  Sarno,  which  flowed  at 
some  distance  from  the  city,  there  must  have  been  a  small 
settlement  at  the  landing  place.  To  this  probably  belonged  a 
group  of  buildings,  partly  excavated  in  1880-81,  lying  just  across 
the  Sarno  canal  (canale  del  Bottaro),  about  a  third  of  a  mile 
from  the  Stabian  Gate.  Here  were  found  many  skeletons,  and 
with  them  a  quantity  of  gold  jewellery,  which  was  afterward 
placed  in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  The  most  reasonable 
explanation  of  the  discovery  is,  that  the  harbor  was  here,  and 
that  these  persons,  gathering  up  their  valuables,  fled  from 
Pompeii  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  either  in  order  to  escape  by 


BEFORE   79  ii 

sea  or  to  take  refuge  in  Stabiae.  Flight  in  either  case  was  cut 
off.  If  ships  were  in  the  harbor,  they  must  soon  have  been 
filled  with  the  volcanic  deposits  ;  if  there  was  a  bridge  across 
the  river  it  was  probably  thrown  down  by  the  earthquake. 

A  second  suburb  sprang  up  near  the  sea,  in  connection  with 
the  salt  works  (sa/inac)  of  the  city.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  Salinenses,  is  derived  from  several  inscriptions 
painted  upon  walls,  in  which  they  recommend  candidates  for  the 
municipal  offices,  and  from  an  inscription  scratched  upon  the 
plaster  of  a  column  in  which  a  fuller  by  the  name  of  Crescens 
sends  them  a  greeting  :  Ci'esce\7i'\s fiillo  Salinc\7i\sibiis  salnte\in\ 
From  another  inscription  we  learn  that  they  had  an  assembly, 
convciitiis,  possibly  judicial  in  its  functions  ;  for  in  connection 
with  a  date,  it  speaks  of  a  fine  of  twenty  sesterces,  which  would 
amount  to  about  3^-  shillings,  or  85  cents  :  VII  K.  dec.  Salinis 
in  convcntu  innlta  HS  XX,  '  Fine  of  twenty  sesterces ;  assem- 
bly at  Salinae,  November  25.'  Still  another  inscription  speaks 
of  attending  such  a  meeting  on  November  19:  XIII  K.  dec. 
in   convcntu  veni. 

The  suburb  most  frequently  mentioned  was  at  first  called 
Pagus  Felix  Suburbanus,  but  after  the  time  of  Augustus, 
Pagus  Augustus  Felix  Suburbanus.  Its  location  is  unknown. 
As  it  evidently  took  the  name  of  Felix  from  the  Dictator  Sulla, 
who  used  this  epithet  as  a  surname,  we  may  assume  that  its 
origin  dates  from  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  colony ;  it 
may  have  been  founded  to  provide  a  place  for  those  inhabitants 
of  Pompeii  who  had  been  forced  to  leave  their  homes  in  order 
to  make  room  for  the  colonists.  The  existence  of  a  fourth 
suburb  is  inferred  from  two  painted  inscriptions  in  which 
candidates  for  office  are  recommended  by  the  Campanienses ; 
this  name  would  naturally  be  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of 
a  Pagus  Campanus,  who,  perhaps,  had  originally  come  from 
Capua. 

Of  the  government  of  Pompeii  in  the  earliest  times,  before 
the  Samnite  conquest,  nothing  is  known.  The  names  of  various 
magistrates  in  the  Samnite  period,  however,  particularly  the 
period  of  alliance  with  Rome  (290-90  B.C.),  are  learned  from 
inscriptions.      Mention  is  made  of  a  chief  administrative  officer 


POMPEII 


{viediss,  nicdiss  tovtiks)\  of  quaestors,  who,  probably,  like  the 
quaestors  in  Rome,  were  charged  with  the  financial  administra- 
tion and  let  the  contracts  for  public  buildings  ;  and  of  aediles, 
to  whom,  no  doubt,  was  intrusted  the  care  of  streets  and  build- 
ings, together  with  the  policing  of 
the  markets.  The  Latin  names  of 
the  last  two  officials  suggest  that 
their  oiTices  were  introduced  after 
290.  There  was  also  an  assembly 
called  kombejiniom,  with  which  we 
may  compare  the  Latin  cojivcntns ; 
but  whether  it  was  an  assembly  of 
the  people  or  a  city  council  cannot 
now  be  determined. 

After  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  colony,  Pompeii  was  named 
Co/onia  Cornelia  Vcncria  Ponipciano- 
riivi,  from  the  gentile  name  of  the 
Dictator  Sulla  (Lucius  Cornelius  Sulla 
Felix)  and  from  the  goddess  to  whom 
he  paid  special  honor,  who  now,  as 
Venus  Pompeiana,  became  the  tute- 
lary divinity  of  the  city.  This  god- 
dess is  represented  in  wall  paintings.  In  that  from  which  our 
illustration  is  taken  (Fig.  4),  she  appears  in  a  blue  mantle  stud- 
ded with  golden  stars,  and  wears  a  crown  set  with  green  stones. 
Her  left  hand,  which  holds  a  sceptre,  rests  upon  a  rudder;  in 
her  right  is  a  twig  of  olive.  A  Cupid  stands  upon  a  pedestal 
beside  her,  holding  up  a  mirror. 

From  this  time  the  highest  official  body,  as  in  Roman  colo- 
nies everywhere,  was  the  city  council,  composed  of  decurions. 
The  administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  two  pairs  of 
officials,  the  duumvirs  with  judiciary  authority,  duitniviri  iiiri 
diciuido,  and  two  aediles,  who  were  responsible  for  the  care 
of  buildings  and  streets  and  the  oversight  of  the  markets. 
When  the  duumvirs  and  the  aediles  joined  in  official  acts  they 
were  known  as  the  Board  of  Four,  quattiiorviri.  Down  to  the 
time  of  the  Empire  it  appears  that  the  aediles  were  not  desig- 


Fig.  4.  —  \'enus  Pompeiana. 
From  a  wall  painting. 


BEFORE    79  13 

nated  officially  by  that  name,  but  by  a  title  known  to  us  only 
in  an  abbreviated  form,  duiivivin  v.  a.  sacr.  p.  proc.  This  prob- 
ably stands  for  duumviri  viis,  ardihus,  sacris  pnblicis  procurandis, 
'  duumvirs  in  charge  of  the  streets,  the  temples,  and  the  public 
religious  festivals.'  The  title  of  aedile  seems  to  have  been 
avoided  because  it  had  been  in  use  in  the  days  of  autonomy,  and 
the  authorities  thought  it  prudent  to  suppress  everything  that 
would  suggest  the  former  state  of  independence.  Nevertheless, 
the  word  retained  its  place  in  ordinary  speech,  as  is  shown  by  its 
use  in  the  inscriptions  painted  on  walls  recommending  candi- 
dates for  office ;  thence  it  finally  forced  its  way  back  into  the 
official  language.  The  duumvirs  of  every  fifth  year  were  called 
quinquennial  duumvirs,  diiuuiviri  quiiiqiiennales,  and  assumed 
functions  corresponding  with  those  of  the  censors  at  Rome; 
they  gave  attention  to  matters  of  finance,  and  revised  the  lists 
of  decurions  and  of  citizens. 

All  these  officials  were  elected  annually  by  popular  vote. 
The  candidates  offered  themselves  beforehand.  If  none  came 
forward,  or  there  were  too  few,  —  for  the  city  officials  not  only 
received  no  salary,  but  were  under  obligation  to  make  generous 
contributions  for  public  purposes,  as  theatrical  representations, 
games,  and  buildings,  —  the  magistrate  who  presided  at  the 
election  named  candidates  for  the  vacancies ;  but  each  candi- 
date so  named  had  the  right  to  nominate  a  second  for  the  same 
vacancy,  the  second  in  turn  a  third.  The  voting  was  by  ballot ; 
each  voter  threw  his  voting  tablet  into  the  urn  of  his  precinct. 
No  information  has  come  down  to  us  regarding  the  precincts 
{curiae)  into  which  the  city  must  have  been  divided  for  electoral 
purposes. 

The  election  of  a  candidate  was  valid  only  in  case  he  received 
the  vote  of  an  absolute  majority  of  the  precincts.  If  the  result 
was  indecisive  for  all  or  a  part  of  the  offices,  the  city  council 
chose  an  extraordinary  official  who  bore  the  title  of  prefect  with 
judiciary  authority,  pracfcctus  iiiri  dicimdo.  This  prefect  took 
the  place  of  the  duumvirs,  not  only  when  an  election  was  inde- 
cisive, but  also  when  vacancies  arose  in  some  other  way,  or 
when  peculiar  conditions  seemed  to  make  it  desirable  to  have 
an  officer  of  unusual  powers,  a  kind  of  dictator ;  or  finally,  when 


14  POMPEII 

the  emperor  had  received  the  vote ;  in  the  last  two  cases,  the 
prefect  was  undoubtedly  appointed  by  the  emperor.  Thus,  in 
the  years  34  and  40  a.d.,  the  Emperor  Caligula  was  duumvir  of 
Pompeii ;  but  the  duties  of  the  office  were  discharged  by  a  pre- 
fect. A  law  passed  in  Rome  toward  the  end  of  the  Republic 
on  the  motion  of  a  certain  Petronius  contained  provisions 
regarding  the  appointment  of  prefects ;  one  chosen  in  accord- 
ance with  them  was  called  pi'aefectiis  ex  lege  Petronia,  '  prefect 
according  to  the  law  of  Petronius.' 

There  were  also  in  Pompeii  priests  supported  by  the  cit\',  but 
only  a  few  of  them  are  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions.  Refer- 
ences are  found  to  augurs  and  pontifices,  to  a  priest  of  Mars, 
and  to  priests  {flamen,  sacerdos)  of  Augustus  while  he  \vas  still 
living ;  Nero  had  a  priest  even  before  he  ascended  the  throne. 
Mention  is  made  of  priestesses,  too,  a  priestess  of  Ceres  and 
Venus,  priestesses  of  Ceres,  and  others,  the  divinities  of  whom 
are  not  named. 

The  suburbs  could  scarcely  have  had  a  separate  administra- 
tion ;  they  remained  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  magistrates 
of  the  city.  In  the  case  of  the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix  mention 
is  made  of  a  niagister,  'director,'  ministri,  'attendants,'  and 
pagani,  '  pagus  officials ' ;  but  apparently  these  were  all  ap- 
pointed for  religious  functions  only,  in  connection  with  the 
worship  of  the  emperor.  The  magister  and  the  pagani,  in 
part  at  least,  were  freedmen  ;  the  four  niinistri,  first  appointed 
in  7  B.C.,  were  slaves. 

Apart  from  commerce,  an  important  source  of  income  for  the 
Pompeians  lay  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  antiquity,  as  now, 
grapes  were  cultivated  extensively  on  the  ridge  projecting  from 
the  foot  of  Vesuvius  toward  the  south.  The  evidence  afforded 
by  the  great  number  of  \vine  jars,  ampJwrae  (Fig.  5),  that  have 
been  brought  to  light  would  warrant  this  conclusion ;  and  lately 
wine  presses  also  have  been  discovered  near  Boscoreale,  above 
Pompeii.  Pliny  makes  mention  of  the  Pompeian  wine,  but 
remarks  that  indulgence  in  it  brings  a  headache  that  will  last  till 
noon  of  the  following  day.  The  olive  too  was  cultivated,  but 
only  to  a  limited  extent ;  this  we  infer  from  the  small  capacity 
of  the  press  and  other  appliances  for  making  oil  found  in  the 


15 K FORI-:    79 


15 


same  villa  in  which  the  wine  presses  were  discovered.  At  the 
present  time  the  making  of  oil  is  not  carried  on  about  Pompeii. 
In  the  plain  below  the  city  vegetables  were  raised,  as  at  the 
present  day ;  the  cabbage  and  onions  of  Pompeii  were  highly 
prized. 

The  working  up  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  formed 
an  important  industry.  The  fish  sauces  which  so  tickled  the 
palate  of  ancient  epicures,  garunt, 
liquaiiuiiy  and  nutria,  were  produced 
here  of  the  finest  quality.  The  mak- 
ing of  them  seems  to  have  been  prac- 
tically a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  a 
certain  Umbricius  Scaurus  ;  a  great 
number  of  earthen  jars  have  been 
found  with  the  mark  of  his  owner- 
ship (p.   506). 

The  Pompeians  turned  to  account, 
also,  the  volcanic  products  of  Vesu- 
vius. Pumice  stone  was  an  article 
of  export.  From  the  lava  millstones 
were  made  for  both  grain  mills  and 
oil  mills,  which  were  apparently  al- 
ready in  extensive  use  in  the  time  of 
Cato  the  Elder  ;   he  twice  mentions 

the  oil  mills  of  Pompeii.  In  Pompeii  itself  the  millstones  of 
the  oldest  period  are  of  lava  from  Vesuvius  ;  later  it  was  found 
that  the  lava  of  Rocca  Monfina  was  better  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  millstones  of  that  material  were  preferred.  Small 
hand-mills  of  the  lava  from  Vesuvius  were  in  use  at  Pompeii 
down  to  79 ;  but  the  larger  millstones  of  this  material  found  in 
the  bakeries  had  been  put  one  side.  In  shape  and  finish  the 
mills  of  local  make  were  superior  to  the  more  carelessly  worked 
stones  from  Rocca  Monfina ;  the  preference  for  the  latter  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  contained  numerous  crystals  of  leucite, 
which  broke  off  as  the  mill  wore  away-,  and  so  kept  the  grinding 
surfaces  always  rough.  Millstones  from  Rocca  Monfina  may 
be  seen  at  different  places  in  Rome,  as  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Baths  of   Diocletian. 


—  An  amphora  from 
Boscoreale. 


i6  POMPEII 

To  the  sources  of  revenue  which  contributed  to  the  pros- 
perity of  Pompeii  we  may  add  the  presence  of  wealthy  Romans, 
who,  attracted  by  the  delightful  climate,  built  country  seats  in 
the  vicinity.  Among  them  was  Cicero,  who  often  speaks  of  his 
Pompeian  villa  (Pompeianum).  That  the  imperial  family  also  had 
a  villa  here  is  inferred  from  a  curious  accident.  We  read  that 
Drusus,  the  young  son  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  a  few  days 
after  his  betrothal  to  the  daughter  of  Sejanus,  was  choked  to 
death  at  Pompeii  by  a  pear  which  he  had  thrown  up  into  the  air 
and  caught  in  his  mouth.  These  country  seats,  no  doubt,  lay 
on  the  high  ground  back  of  Pompeii,  toward  Vesuvius  ;  they 
probably  faced  the  sea.  But  the  identification  of  a  villa  exca- 
vated in  the  last  century,  and  then  filled  up  again,  as  the  villa  of 
Cicero,  is  wholly  without  foundation. 

Salve  Incniui,  '  Welcome,  Gain !  '  Such  is  the  inscription 
which  a  Pompeian  placed  in  the  mosaic  floor  of  his  house. 
Liiciitni  gandiuvi,  '  Gain  is  pure  joy,'  we  read  on  the  threshold 
of  another  house.  A  thrifty  Pompeian  certainly  did  not  lack 
opportunity  to  acquire  wealth. 

How  large  a  population  Pompeii  possessed  at  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  the  city  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  A  pains- 
taking examination  of  all  the  houses  excavated  would  afford 
data  for  an  approximate  estimate;  but  the  results  thus  far  ob- 
tained by  those  who  have  given  attention  to  the  subject  are 
unsatisfactory.  Fiorelli  assigned  to  Pompeii  twelve  thousand 
inhabitants,  Nissen  twenty  thousand.  Undoubtedly  the  second 
estimate  is  nearer  the  truth  than  the  first ;  according  to  all  indi- 
cation the  population  may  very  likely  have  exceeded  twenty 
thousand. 

This  population  was  by  no  means  homogeneous.  The  origi- 
nal Oscan  stock  had  not  yet  lost  its  identity  ;  inscriptions  in  the 
Oscan  dialect  are  found  scratched  on  the  plaster  of  walls  deco- 
rated in  the  style  prevalent  after  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63. 
From  the  time  when  the  Roman  colony  was  founded  no  doubt 
additions  continued  to  be  made  to  the  pjDpulation  from  various 
parts  of  Italy.  The  Greek  element  was  particularly  strong. 
This  is  proved  by  the  number  of  Greek  names  in  the  accounts 
of  Caecilius  Jucundus,  for  example,  and  by  the  Greek  inscrip- 


BEFORE    79 


17 


tions  that  have  been  found  on  walls  and  on  amphorae.  The 
Cireeks  may  have  come  from  the  neighboring  towns;  most  of 
them  were  probably  freedmen.  In  a  seaport  we  should  expect 
to  find  also  Greeks  from  trans-marine  cities ;  and,  in  fact,  an 
Alexandrian  appears  in  one  of  the  receipts  of  Jucundus.  There 
were  Orientals,  too,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Isis. 

Thus  far  there  has  come  to  hand  no  trustworthy  evidence  for 
the  presence  of  Christians  at  Pompeii ;  but  traces  of  Jewish 
influence  are  not  lacking.  The  words  Sodoma,  Gomora,  are 
scratched  in  large  letters  on  the  wall  of  a  house  in  Region  IX 
(IX.  i.  26).  They  must  have  been  written  by  a  Jew,  or  possibly 
a  Christian  ;  they  seem  like  a  prophecy  of  the  fate  of  the  city. 


—  \    1      ' 


Fig.  6.  —  The  Judgment  of  Solumon.    Wall  painiiiig. 

Another  interesting  bit  of  evidence  is  a  wall  painting,  which 
appears  to  have  as  its  subject  the  Judgment  of  Solomon  (Fig.  6). 
On  a  tribunal  at  the  right  sits  the  king  with  two  advisers ;  the 
pavilion  is  well  guarded  with  soldiers.  In  front  of  the  tribunal 
a  soldier  is  about  to  cut  a  child  in  two  with  a  cleaver.  Two 
women  are  represented,  one  of  whom  stands  at  the  block  and  is 
already  taking  hold  of  the  half  of  the  child  assigned  to  her, 
while  the  other  casts  herself  on  her  knees  as  a  suppliant  before 
the  judges.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  reference  here  is  to  Solo- 
mon ;  such  tales  pass  from  one  country  to  another,  and  a  some- 
what similar  story  is  told  of  the  Egyptian  king  Bocchoris.  The 
balance  of  probability  is  in  favor  of  the  view  that  we  have  here 
the  Jewish  version  of  the  story,  because  this  is  consistent  with 
other  facts  that  point  to  the  existence  of  a  Jewish  colony  at 
Pompeii, 


i8  POMPEII 

The  names  Maria  and  Martha  appear  in  wall  inscriptions. 
The  assertion  that  Maria  here  is  not  the  Hebrew  name,  but  the 
feminine  form  of  the  Roman  name  ]\Iarius,  is  far  astray.  It 
appears  in  a  list  of  female  slaves  who  were  working  in  a 
weaver's  estabhshment,  Vitalis,  Florentina,  Amaryllis,  Januaria, 
Heracla,  Maria,  Lalage,  Damalis,  Doris.  The  Marian  family 
was  represented  at  Pompeii,  but  the  Roman  name  Maria  could 
not  have  been  given  to  a  slave.  That  we  have  here  a  Jewish 
name  seems  certain  since  the  discovery  of  the  name  Martha. 

In  inscriptions  upon  wine  jars  we  find  mention  of  a  certain 
M.  Valerius  Abinnerichus,  a  name  which  is  certainly  Jewish  or 
Syrian ;  but  whether  Abinnerich  was  a  dealer,  or  the  owner  of  the 
estate  on  which  the  wine  was  produced,  cannot  be  determined. 
In  this  connection  it  is  worth  while  to  note  that  vessels  have 
been  found  with  the  inscribed  labels,  gar\jiin^  cast\_nin^  or 
cast\iiuonialc\,  and  ;;^//r[/<r]  cast\a\.  As  we  learn  from  Pliny 
(X.  H.  XXXI.  viii.  95),  these  fish  sauces,  prepared  for  fast 
days,  were  used  especially  by  the  Jews. 

Some  have  thought  that  the  word  CJiristianos  can  be  read  in 
an  inscription  written  with  charcoal,  and  have  fancied  that  they 
found  a  reference  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Xero.  But  charcoal  inscriptions,  which  will  last  for  centuries 
when  covered  with  earth,  soon  become  illegible  if  exposed  to 
the  air;  such  an  inscription,  traced  on  a  wall  at  the  time  of  the 
persecutions  under  Nero,  must  have  disappeared  long  before  the 
destruction  of  the  city.  The  inscription  in  question  was  indis- 
tinct when  discovered,  and  has  since  entirely  faded  ;  the  reading 
is  quite  uncertain.  If  it  were  proved  that  the  word  "  Chris- 
tians "  appeared  in  it,  we  should  be  warranted  only  in  the  infer- 
ence that  Christians  were  known  at  Pompeii,  not  that  they  lived 
and  worshipped  there.  According  to  Tertullian  (Apol.  40)  there 
were  no  Christians  in  Campania  before  79. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   CITY  OVERWHELMED 

Previous  to  the  terrible  eruption  of  79,  Vesuvius  was  con- 
sidered an  extinct  volcano.  "  Above  these  places,"  says  Strabo, 
writing  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  "lies  Vesuvius,  the  sides  of 
which  are  well  cultivated,  even  to  the  summit.  This  is  level, 
but  quite  unproductive.  It  has  a  cindery  appearance ;  for  the 
rock  is  porous  and  of  a  sooty  color,  the  appearance  suggesting 
that  the  whole  summit  may  once  have  been  on  fire  and  have 
contained  craters,  the  fires  of  which  died  out  when  there  was 
no  longer  anything  left  to  burn." 

Earthquakes,  however,  were  of  common  occurrence  in  Cam- 
pania. An  especially  violent  shock  on  the  fifth  of  February, 
^^  A.D.,  gave  warning  of  the  reawakening  of  Vesuvius.  Great 
damage  was  done  throughout  the  region  lying  between  Naples 
and  Nuceria,  but  the  shock  was  most  severe  at  Pompeii,  a 
large  part  of  the  buildings  of  the  city  being  thrown  down.  The 
prosperous  and  enterprising  inhabitants  at  once  set  about  re- 
building. When  the  final  catastrophe  came,  on  the  twenty- 
fourth  of  August,  79  A.D.,  most  of  the  houses  were  in  a  good 
state  of  repair,  and  the  rebuilding  of  at  least  two  temples,  those 
of  Apollo  and  of  Isis,  had  been  completed.  This  renewing  of 
the  city,  caused  by  the  earthquake,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
fortunate  circumstance  for  our  studies. 

Our  chief  source  of  information  for  the  events  of  August  24- 
26,  79,  is  a  couple  of  letters  of  the  Younger  Pliny  to  Tacitus, 
who  purposed  to  make  use  of  them  in  writing  his  history.  Pliny 
was  staying  at  Misenum  with  his  uncle,  the  Elder  Pliny,  who 
was  in  command  of  the  Roman  fleet.  In  the  first  letter  he  tells 
of  his  uncle's  fate.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  twenty-fourth,  the 
admiral  Pliny  set  out  with  ships  to  rescue  from  impending  dan- 
ger the  people  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  particularly  in  the  vicinity 

19 


20  POMPEII 

of  Herculaneum.  He  came  too  late ;  it  was  no  longer  possible 
to  effect  a  landing.  So  he  directed  his  course  to  Stabiae,  where 
he  spent  the  night ;  and  there  on  the  following  morning  he  died, 
suffocated  by  the  fumes  that  were  exhaled  from  the  earth. 
The  second  letter  gives  an  account  of  the  writer's  own  ex- 
periences at  Misenum. 

To  this  testimony  httle  is  added  by  the  narrative  of  Dion 
Cassius,  which  was  written  a  century  and  a  half  later  and  is 
known  to  us  only  in  abstract ;  Dion  dwells  at  greater  length  on 
the  powerful  impression  which  the  terrible  convulsion  of  nature 
left  upon  those  who  were  living  at  that  time.  With  the  help 
of  the  letters  of  Pliny,  in  connection  with  the  facts  established 
by  the  excavations,  it  is  possible  to  picture  to  ourselves  the 
progress  of  the  eruption  with  a  fair  degree  of  clearness. 

The  subterranean  fires  of  Vesuvius  pressed  upward  to  find 
an  outlet.  The  accumulations  of  volcanic  dust  and  pumice 
stone  that  had  been  heaped  up  on  the  mountain  by  former 
eruptions  were  again  hurled  to  a  great  height,  and  came  down 
upon  the  surrounding  country.  On  the  west  side  of  Vesuvius 
they  mingled  with  torrents  of  rain,  and  flowed  as  a  vast  stream 
of  mud  down  over  Herculaneum.  On  the  south  side,  driven 
by  a  northwest  wind  as  they  descended  from  the  upper  air, 
they  spread  out  into  a  thick  cloud,  which  covered  Pompeii  and 
the  plain  of  the  Sarno.  Out  of  this  cloud  first  broken  frag- 
ments of  pumice  stone  — ■  the  average  size  not  larger  than  a 
walnut  —  rained  down  to  the  depth  of  eight  to  ten  feet ;  then 
followed  volcanic  dust,  wet  as  it  fell  by  a  downpour  of  water,  to 
the  depth  of  six  or  seven  feet.  With  the  storm  of  dust  came 
successive  shocks  of  earthquake. 

Such  was,  in  outline,  the  course  of  the  eruption.  It  must 
have  begun  early  in  the  morning  of  the  twenty-fourth,  and  the 
stream  of  mud  must  have  commenced  immediately  to  move  in 
the  direction  of  Herculaneum  ;  for  shortly  after  one  o'clock  on 
that  day  the  admiral  Pliny  at  Misenum  received  letters  from 
the  region  threatened,  saying  that  the  danger  was  imminent,  and 
that  escape  was  possible  only  by  sea.  Even  then  the  Younger 
Pliny  saw,  high  above  Vesuvius,  the  cloud,  shaped  like  an  um- 
brella  pine,  which   was  to  rain  down  destruction  on   Pompeii. 


THE   CITY   OVERWHELMED  21 

Toward  evening",  the  ships  off  Herculaneum  ran  into  the  hail  of 
pumice  stone,  which,  during  the  night,  reached  Stabiae  and  so  in- 
creased in  violence  that  the  admiral  Pliny  was  obliged  to  leave 
his  sleeping  room  from  fear  that  the  door  would  be  blocked  up 
by  the  falling  masses. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  twenty-fifth  there  was  a  severe 
shock  of  earthquake,  which  was  felt  as  far  as  Misenum.  Then 
the  dust  began  to  fall,  and  a  cloud  of  fearful  blackness,  pierced 
through  and  through  with  flashes  of  lightning,  settled  down 
over  land  and  sea.  At  Misenum,  even,  it  became  dark;  "not," 
says  Pliny,  "  as  on  a  cloudy  night  when  there  is  no  moon,  but 
as  in  a  room  which  has  been  completely  closed." 

How  long  the  fall  of  dust  lasted  we  can  only  infer  from 
this,  that  when  it  ceased  the  sun  had  not  yet  set.  In  Misenum, 
which  the  shower  of  pumice  stone  had  not  reached,  everything 
was  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  dust.  Although  the  earth- 
quake shocks  continued,  the  inhabitants  went  back  into  their 
houses.  But  Pompeii  and  Stabiae  had  been  covered  so  deep 
that  only  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  where  these  had  not  fallen  in, 
projected  above  the  surface ;  and  Herculaneum  had  wholly 
disappeared. 

All  the  plain  of  the  Sarno  was  buried,  as  were  also  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  on  the  south.  Stabiae,  as  we  have  seen,  lay  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  on  the  coast.  It  had  been  destroyed 
by  Sulla  in  the  Social  War ;  its  inhabitants,  forced  to  scatter, 
settled  in  the  surrounding  country.  In  the  years  1749-82 
numerous  buildings  were  excavated  in  the  vicinity,  in  part  lux- 
urious country  seats,  in  part  plain  farm  buildings ;  but  the  exca- 
vations were  afterward  filled  up  again.  The  covering  of 
Stabiae  was  like  that  of  Pompeii,  only  not  so  deep. 

Herculaneum  was  covered  with  the  same  materials ;  they 
were  not,  however,  deposited  in  regular  strata,  but  were  mixed 
together,  and  being  drenched  with  water,  hardened  into  a  kind 
of  tufa  which  in  places  reaches  a  depth  of  sixty-five  feet.  Ex- 
cavating at  Herculaneum  is  in  consequence  extremely  difficult ; 
and  the  difficulty  is  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  a  modern 
city,  Resina,  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  site. 
The  excavations  thus  far  attempted   have  in  most  cases   been 


22 


POMPEII 


conducted  by  means  of  underground  passageways.  The  state- 
ment that  Herculaneum  was  overflowed  by  a  stream  of  lava, 
though  frequently  repeated,  is  erroneous. 

The  woodwork  of  buildings  in  Pompeii  has  in  many  cases 
been  preserved,  but  in  a  completely  charred  condition.  Fre- 
quently where  walls  were  painted  with  yellow  ochre  it  has 
turned  red,  especially  when  brought  immediately  into  contact 
with  the  stratum  of  dust  —  a  change  which  this  color  under- 
goes when  it  is  exposed  to  heat.  Nevertheless,  the  inference 
would  be  unwarranted  that  the  products  of  the  eruption  fell 
upon  the  city  red-hot  and  caused  a  general  conflagration.     The 


Fig.  7.  —  Cast  of  a  man. 


fragments  of  pumice  stone  could  scarcely  have  retained  a  great 
degree  of  heat  after  having  been  so  long  in  the  air;  it  is  evident 
from  Pliny's  narrative  that  they  were  not  hot. 

With  the  dust  a  copious  rain  must  have  fallen ;  for  the 
bodies  of  those  who  perished  in  the  storm  of  dust  left  perfect 
moulds,  into  a  number  of  which  soft  plaster  of  Paris  has  been 
poured,  making  those  casts  of  human  figures  which  lend  a 
melancholy  interest  to  the  collections  in  the  little  Museum 
at  Pompeii  (Fig.  7).  The  extraordinary  freshness  of  these 
figures,  without  any  suggestion  of  the  wasting  away  after  death, 
is  explicable  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  enveloping  dust 
was  damp,   and  so   commenced   immediately   to  harden  into  a 


THE   CITY   OVERWHELMED  23 

permanent  shape.  If  the  dust  had  been  dry  and  had  packed 
down  and  hardened  afterwards,  we  should  be  able  to  trace  at 
least  the  beginnings  of  decay. 

Neither  the  pumice  stone  nor  the  dust,  then,  could  have  set 
wood  on  fire.  The  woodwork  must  have  become  charred  grad- 
ually from  the  effect  of  moisture,  as  in  the  case  of  coal,  and  the 
change  in  the  color  of  the  yellow  ochre  must  be  due  to  some 
other  cause  than  the  presence  of  heat.  This  is  all  the  more 
evident  from  the  fact  that  vestiges  of  local  conflagrations,  con- 
fined within  narrow  limits,  can  here  and  there  be  traced,  kindled 
by  the  masses  of  glowing  slag  which  fell  at  the  same  time  with 
the  pumice  stone,  or  by  the  fires  left  burning  in  the  houses. 

From  the  number  of  skeletons  discovered  in  the  past  few 
decades,  since  an  accurate  record  has  been  kept,  it  has  been 
estimated  that  in  Pompeii  itself,  about  two  thousand  persons 
perished.  As  the  city  contained  a  population  of  twenty  thou- 
sand or  more,  it  is  evident  that  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
fled  ;  since  the  eruption  commenced  in  the  morning,  while  the 
hail  of  pumice  stone  did  not  begin  till  afternoon,  those  who 
appreciated  the  greatness  of  the  danger  had  time  to  escape.  It 
is,  however,  impossible  to  say  how  many  fled  when  it  was 
already  too  late,  and  lost  their  lives  outside  the  city.  Mention 
has  already  been  made  of  some  who  perished  at  the  harbor ; 
others  who  went  out  earlier  to  the  Sarno  may  have  made  good 
their  escape.  Of  those  who  remained  in  the  city  part  were 
buried  in  the  houses  —  so  with  twenty  persons  whose  skeletons 
were  found  in  the  cellar  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes ;  others,  as 
the  hail  of  pumice  stone  ceased,  ventured  out  into  the  streets, 
where  they  soon  succumbed  to  the  shower  of  dust  that  imme- 
diately followed.  As  the  bodies  wasted  away  little  except  the 
bones  was  left  in  the  hollows  formed  by  the  dust  that  hardened 
around  them,  and  the  casts  already  referred  to,  which  have  been 
made  from  time  to  time  since  1863,  give  in  some  cases  a  re- 
markably clear  and  sharp  representation  of  the  victims. 

The  Emperor  Titus  sent  a  commission  of  senators  into  Cam- 
pania to  report  in  what  way  help  could  best  be  rendered.  A 
plan  was  formed  to  rebuild  the  cities  that  had  been  destroyed, 
and  the  property  of  those  who  died  without  heirs  was  set  aside 


24 


POMPEII 


for  this  purpose.  Nothing  came  of  it,  however,  so  far  as  our 
knowledge  goes.  Pompeii  is  indeed  mentioned  in  the  Peutinger 
Table,  a  map  for  travellers  made  in  the  third  century,  but  the 
name  was  apparently  given  to  a  post  station  in  memory  of  the 
former  city.  Conclusive  evidence  against  the  existence  of  a 
new  city  is  the  absence  of  any  inscriptions  referring  to  it. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  UNEARTHING   OF  THE  CITY 

The  first  excavations  at  Pompeii  were  undertaken  by  the 
survivors  shortly  after  the  destruction  of  the  city.  As  the 
upper  parts  of  the  houses  that  had  not  fallen  in  projected  above 
the  surface,  it  was  possible  to  locate  the  places  under  which 
objects  of  value  were  buried.  Men  dug  down  from  the  surface 
at  certain  points  and  tunnelled  from  room  to  room  underneath, 
breaking  through  the  intervening  walls.  This  work  was  facili- 
tated by  the  stratification  of  the  volcanic  deposit  ;  the  loose 
bits  of  pumice  stone  in  the  lower  stratum  were  easily  removed, 
while  the  stratum  of  dust  above  was  compact  enough  to  fur- 
nish a  fairly  safe  roof  for  narrow  passageways.  Only  infre- 
quently is  a  house  discovered  that  was  left  undisturbed  ;  from 
this  we  understand  why  comparatively  little  household  furniture 
of  value  has  been  found.  Not  only  were  rich  house  furnishings 
in  demand,  —  the  excavators  carried  away  valuable  building 
materials  as  well.  So  eagerly  were  these  sought  after  that 
large  buildings,  as  those  about  the  Forum,  were  almost  com- 
pletely stripped  of  their  marble. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  Pompeii  was  quite  forgotten.  Possibly 
some  remains  of  the  ancient  buildings  were  yet  to  be  seen ;  at 
any  rate  it  seems  to  have  been  believed  that  a  city  once  existed 
there,  for  the  site  was  called  La  Civita. 

In  the  years  1 594-1600  Domenico  Fontana  was  bringing 
water  from  one  of  the  springs  of  the  Sarno  to  Torre  Annun- 
ziata,  and  in  the  course  of  the  work  cut  an  underground 
channel  through  the  site  of  Pompeii  and  discovered  -two 
inscriptions ;  but  no  further  investigations  were  made.  The 
indifference  of  Fontana  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
water  channel  was  not  dug  out  from  above,  like  a  railway 
cutting,  and  then   covered   over,  but  was   carried  as   a  tunnel 

25 


26  POMPEII 

through  the  hill  on  which  the  city  stood,  so  that  the  work- 
men came  to  the  ancient  surface  at  only  a  few  points.  In  the 
part  now  excavated,  the  original  level  was  disturbed  in  but 
one  place,  near  the  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius ;  here  the  in- 
scriptions were  probably  found. 

The  excavation  of  the  buried  Campanian  towns  began,  not  at 
Pompeii,  but  at  Herculaneum,  where  in  1709  the  workmen  of 
the  Austrian  general,  Count  Elbeuf,  sunk  a  shaft,  reaching  the 
ancient  level  at  the  rear  of  the  stage  of  the  theatre.  The 
current  statement  that  Elbeuf  discovered  the  site  of  Hercula- 
neum by  accident,  his  workmen  being  engaged  in  digging  a 
well,  is  erroneous.  The  location  of  the  city  was  already  known, 
and  Elbeuf  was  searching  for  antiquities.  The  error  probably 
originated  in  a  misunderstanding  of  the  Italian  word  pozzo, 
which  has  a  double  meaning,   "shaft,"  and  "well." 

At  first  little  was  accomplished,  but  after  1738  excavations 
were  carried  on  by  King  Charles  III  in  a  more  systematic 
manner.  The  director  of  these  excavations,  Rocco  Gioacchino 
de  Alcubierre,  in  March,  1748,  had  occasion  to  inspect  the 
water  channel  mentioned  above,  and  learned  that  at  the  place 
called  La  Civita  —  which  he  thought  was  Stabiae  —  objects  of 
antiquity  were  often  found.  He  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  site  was  more  promising  than  that  of  Herculaneum, 
where  the  excavations  just  then  were  yielding  little  of  value  ; 
the  result  of  his  recommendation  was  that  on  the  thirtieth  of 
the  same  month  excavations  were  commenced  at  Pompeii,  with 
twelve  workmen. 

The  first  digging  was  done  north  of  Nola  Street,  near  the 
Casa  del  Torello ;  then  the  men  were  set  at  work  on  the  Street 
of  Tombs,  near  the  Herculaneum  Gate ;  and  a  part  of  the 
Amphitheatre  also  was  cleared.  In  1750  the  work  was  stopped, 
because  the  results  were  thought  to  be  unimportant. 

Attention  was  again  directed  to  Pompeii  in  1754,  when  work- 
men engaged  in  constructing  the  highway  that  runs  just  south 
of  the  city  discovered  a  number  of  tombs.  About  the  same 
time,  west  of  the  Amphitheatre,  the  extensive  establishment  of 
Julia  Felix,  arranged  like  a  villa,  and  some  buildings  lying  north 
of  it,  were  excavated  ;  but  thev  were  all  covered  up  again,  as 


THE  UNEARTHING  OF  THE  CITY  27 

was  also  the  so-called  villa  of  Cicero,  which  was  uncovered  in 

1763. 

The  parts  excavated  were  not  left  clear  until  after  1763,  when 
the  discovery  of  the  inscription  of  Suedius  Clemens,  on  the 
Street  of  Tombs,  had  established  the  fact  that  the  site  was  that 
of  Pompeii.  Important  discoveries  were  made  soon  after.  In 
the  years  immediately  following  1764  the  theatres,  with  the 
adjacent  buildings,  and  the  Street  of  Tombs,  together  with  the 
villa  of  Diomedes,  were  laid  bare.  The  excavations  were  con- 
ducted slowly  and  without  system,  yet  with  scientific  interest 
fostered  by  the  Herculaneum  Academy  (Accademia  ercolanese), 
which  had  been  founded  in  1755. 

Under  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Murat,  1806-15,  the  work 
received  larger  appropriations,  and  was  prosecuted  with  greater 
energy,  particularly  in  the  quarter  lying  between  the  Hercula- 
neum Gate  and  the  Forum.  In  the  same  period  the  Forum  was 
approached  from  the  south  side  also.  In  1799,  at  the  time  of 
the  Parthenopean  Republic,  the  French  general  Champion  net 
had  excavated,  south  of  the  Basilica,  the  two  houses  which  are  still 
called  by  his  name.  From  these,  in  181 3,  the  excavators  made 
their  way  into  the  Basilica,  whence,  in  November  of  the  same 
year,  they  pushed  forward  into  the  Forum.  However,  the 
excavation  of  the  Forum  itself  with  the  surrounding  buildings, 
prosecuted  less  vigorously  and  with  limited  means  in  the  period 
of  the  Restoration,  was  not  completed  till  1825;  by  this  time 
the  temple  of  Fortuna  and  the  Baths  north  of  the  Forum  had 
also  been  uncovered.  The  following  years,  to  1832,  brought  to 
light  the  beautiful  houses  on  the  north  side  of  Nola  Street  — 
the  houses  of  Pansa,  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  and  of  the  Faun  — 
and  those  on  Mercury  Street ;  later  came  excavations  south  of 
Nola  Street  and  in  various  parts  of  the  city. 

The  disturbances  of  the  period  of  Revolution  caused  a  cessa- 
tion of  work  for  two  years,  from  July  3,  1848,  to  September  27, 
1850.  During  the  next  nine  years  effort  was  expended  chiefly 
in  clearing  Stabian  Street  and  the  Stabian  Baths. 

The  fall  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  and  the  passing  over  of 
Naples  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  caused  another  interruption, 
which  lasted  a  year,  from  December  5,  1859,  to  December  20, 


28 


POMPEII 


i860.  On  the  last  date  the  excavations  were  resumed  under  the 
direction  of  Giuseppe  Fiorelli,  a  man  of  marked  individuality, 
who  left  a  permanent  impress  upon  every  part  of  the  work. 
To  him  is  due  the  present  admirable  system,  excellent  alike  from 
the  technical  and  from  the  administrative  point  of  view.  We 
owe  it  to  him,  that  better  provision  is  made  now  than 
formerly  for  the  preservation  and  care  of  excavated  buildings 


Fig.  8. 


■An  excavation.     Atrium  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  cleand  m  tlic 
autumn  of  1892. 


and  objects  discovered ;  the  earlier  efforts  in  this  direction 
naturally  left  room  for  improvement,  and  the  painstaking  of  the 
present  administration  is  especially  worthy  of  commendation. 

Fiorelli  put  an  end  to  haphazard  digging,  to  excavating  here 
and  there  wherever  the  site  seemed  most  promising.  He  first 
set  about  clearing  the  undisturbed  places  lying  between  the 
excavated  portions ;  and  when  in  this  way  the  west  part  of 
the  city  had  been  laid  bare,  he  commenced  to  work  systemati- 
cally from  the  excavated  part  toward  the  east.      Since  i860  only 


THE   UNEARTHING   OF   THE   CITY  29 

one  public  building  has  been  excavated  —  the  baths  at  the 
corner  of  Stabian  and  Nola  streets  ;  but  many  private  houses 
have  been  uncovered,  some  of  which  are  of  much  interest. 
Fiorelli  remained  in  charge  of  the  excavations  until  1875,  when 
he  was  called  to  Rome  to  become  General  Director  of  Museums 
and  Excavations;  he  died  in  1896,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two. 
His  successors,  first  Michele  Ruggiero,  then  Giulio  de  Petra, 
have  worked  according  to  his  plans,  and  in  full  sympathy  with 
his  ideals. 

Up  to  the  present  time  about  three-fifths  of  Pompeii  have  been 
excavated.  In  1872  Fiorelli  made  the  calculation  that  if  the 
excavations  should  continue  at  the  rate  then  followed  the  whole 
city  would  be  laid  bare  in  74  years.  Since  that  time  the  work 
has  progressed  more  slowly,  partly  in  consequence  of  the 
greater  care  taken  for  the  preservation  of  the  remains.  At 
the  present  rate  of  progress  we  may  believe  that  the  twentieth 
century  will  hardly  witness  the  completion  of  the  excavations. 

Articles  of  furniture  and  objects  of  art  that  can  easily  be 
moved,  as  the  statuettes  often  found  in  the  gardens,  are  ordi- 
narily taken  to  the  Museum  in  Naples  ;  a  few  things  have  been 
placed  in  the  little  Museum  at  Pompeii.  Now  and  then  small 
sculptures  have  been  left  in  a  house  exactly  as  they  were  found ; 
but  the  necessity  of  keeping  such  houses  locked  and  of  guard- 
ing them  with  especial  care  prevents  the  general  adoption  of 
this  method  of  preservation. 

In  respect  to  the  preservation  of  paintings  the  practice  has 
varied  at  different  periods.  Generally,  however,  the  best 
pictures  have  been  cut  from  the  walls  and  transferred  to  the 
Museum,  while  the  decorative  framework  has  been  left  undis- 
turbed. It  is  keenly  to  be  regretted  that  in  this  way  the  effect 
of  the  decorative  system  as  a  whole  has  been  destroyed,  for 
the  picture  forms  the  centre  of  a  carefully  elaborated  scheme 
of  decoration  which  needs  to  be  viewed  as  an  artistic  whole 
in  order  to  be  fully  appreciated ;  and  the  removal  of  a 
painting  can  hardly  be  accomplished  without  some  damage  to 
the  parts  of  the  wall  immediately  in  contact  with  it.  A  far 
better  method  would  be  to  leave  intact  all  walls  containing 
paintings  or  decorative  work  of  interest,  providing  such  means 


30  POMPEII 

of  protection  against  the  weather  as  may  be  necessary.  A 
good  beginning  in  this  respect  has  been  made  in  the  case 
of  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  the  beautiful  and  well  preserved 
paintings  of  which  have  been  left  on  the  walls  and  are  pre- 
served with  the  greatest  care. 

The  treatment  of  a  mosaic  floor  is  an  altogether  different 
problem.  While  the  floor  as  a  whole,  with  its  ornamental 
designs,  is  left  in  place,  fine  mosaics  representing  paintings, 
which  are  delicate  and  easily  destroyed,  are  wisely  taken  up 
and  placed  in  the  Museum. 


NOTES    TO    PLAN    I 

The  Regions  are  given  as  they  were  laid  out  by  Fiorelli  (p.  34),  the 
boundaries  being  marked  by  broken  lines.  The  Insulae  are  designated  by 
Arabic  numerals. 

Stabian  Street,  between  Stabian  and  Vesuvius  gates,  separating  Regions 
Vni,  VII,  and  VI.  from  I,  IX,  and  V,  is  often  called  Cardo,  from  analogy 
with  the  cardo  niaxitnus  (the  north  and  south  line)  of  a  Roman  camp.  Nola 
Street,  leading  from  the  Nola  Gate,  with  its  continuations  (Strada  della 
Fortuna,  south  of  Insulae  10,  12.  13,  and  14  of  Region  VI,  and  Strada 
della  Terme,  south  of  VI,  4,  6,  8),  was  for  similar  reasons  designated  as  the 
Greater  Decuman,  Decumanus  Maior ;  while  the  street  running  from  the 
Water  Gate  to  the  Sarno  Gate  (Via  Marina,  Abbondanza  Street,  Strada  dei 
Diadumeni)  is  called  the  Lesser  Decuman,  Deci/i/mnus  Minor. 

The  only  Regions  wholly  excavated  are  VII  and  VIII ;  but  only  a  small 
portion  of  Region  VI  remains  covered. 

The  towers  of  the  city  wall  are  designated  by  numbers,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Sulla,  in  89  B.C.  (p.  240). 


PLAN    I.  — OUTLINE    PLAN    OF    POMPEH. 


CHAPTER    V 

A    BIRLTS-EVE    VIEW 

The  outline  of  Pompeii,  with  its  network  of  streets,  may  be 
traced  on  the  accompanying  plan. 

The  city  took  its  shape  from  the  end  of  the  old  lava  stream  on 
which  it  lay,  which  ran  southeast  from  Vesuvius.  It  formed  an 
irregular  oval  a  little  less  than  four  fifths  of  a  mile  (1200  metres) 
long  and  a  little  more  than  two  fifths  of  a  mile  (720  metres)  wide 
in  its  greatest  dimensions.  On  three  sides,  west,  south,  and  east, 
the  wall  of  the  city  ran  along  the  edge  of  the  hill ;  on  the  north- 
west side,  between  the  Herculaneum  and  Capua  gates,  it  passed 
directly  across  the  ridge  formed  by  the  lava. 

The  eight  gates  are  known  by  the  modern  names  given  on  our 
plan.  Two  of  them,  the  Herculaneum  and  Capua  gates,  lie  at 
the  points  where  the  wall  comes  to  the  edge  of  the  lava  bed  on 
either  side ;  the  streets  that  led  from  them  descended  to  the 
plain.  At  the  Herculaneum  Gate  the  much  travelled  highway 
from  Naples,  passing  through  Herculaneum,  entered  the  city ; 
the  Capua  Gate  does  not  seem  to  have  been  built  to  accommo- 
date a  large  traffic.  Between  these  two  lay  the  Vesuvius  Gate, 
through  which  the  Pompeians  passed  out  upon  the  ridge  toward 
Vesuvius. 

From  the  Herculaneum  Gate  nearly  to  the  Stabian  Gate, 
on  the  south  side,  ran  a  bluff,  with  a  sharp  descent.  Never- 
theless, as  a  gate  was  needed  on  the  side  nearest  the  sea, 
the  Water  Gate,  Porta  Marina,  was  placed  here ;  through  it  a 
steep  road  led  to  the  Forum,  so  steep  that  it  could  not  have  been 
much  used  by  vehicles  ;  but  that  may  have  mattered  little  to  the 
fishermen  bringing  their  catches  to  the  market. 

The  Stabian  Gate  lay  in  a  depression  at  the  end  of  the  lava 
bed  and  afforded  a  more  convenient  means  of  access  to  the  city ; 
thence  a  road  ran  to  the  harbor  on  the  Sarno,  and  to  Stabiae. 

31 


32  POMPEII 

At  the  left  another  road  apparently  branched  off  from  this  in 
the  direction  of  Nuceria,  which  could  be  reached  also  from  the 
conveniently  located  Nocera  Gate  further  east ;  here  also  the 
slope  of  the  hill  was  less  pronounced.  Two  gates,  finally,  gave 
access  to  the  city  on  the  somewhat  steeper  east  and  northeast 
sides,  the  Sarno  Gate,  which  takes  its  name,  not  from  the  river, 
but  from  the  modern  town  of  Sarno,  and  the  Nola  Gate ;  it  is  at 
least  probable  that  the  road  passing  through  the  latter  led  to 
Nola. 

A  glance  at  the  plan  will  make  it  plain  that  the  streets  of 
Pompeii  must  have  been  laid  out  according  to  a  definite  system ; 
an  arrangement  on  the  whole  so  regular  and  symmetrical  would 
scarcely  be  found  in  a  city  that  had  developed  gradually  from  a 
small  beginning,  in  which  the  location  of  streets  had  been  the 
result  of  accident. 

Two  wide  streets  that  cross  the  city  very  nearly  at  right  angles 
give  the  direction  for  the  other  streets  running  approximately 
north  and  south  and  east  and  west.  Mercury  Street  with  its  con- 
tinuations, and  Nola  Street.  The  former  probably  served  as  a 
base  line  in  laying  out  the  city ;  this  we  infer  from  the  fact  that 
while  it  is  exceptionally  broad,  and  the  Forum  lies  on  it,  there  is 
no  gate  at  either  end,  and  it  could  have  been  little  used  for  traffic. 
Nola  Street  has  a  gate  only  at  the  east  end  ;  the  west  end  opens 
into  the  Strada  Consolare,  which  follows  the  line  of  the  city  wall 
and  leads  to  the  Herculaneum  Gate  at  the  northwest  corner.  That 
the  other  streets  must  have  taken  their  direction  from  these  two 
is  clearly  seen  in  the  case  of  those  in  the  northwest  part  of  the 
city  ;  on  close  examination  it  will  be  found  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  rest  also  is  in  accordance  with  the  same  system,  a  fact 
which  would  perhaps  be  still  more  obvious  if  the  unexcavated 
eastern  portion  of  the  city  were  laid  bare. 

In  two  instances,  however,  there  is  a  deviation  from  this  system. 
One  is  in  the  quarter  near  the  Forum.  For  reasons  which  have 
not  been  satisfactorily  explained,  the  Porta  Marina  was  not  placed 
on  the  prolongation  of  the  street  coming  from  the  Sarno  Gate, 
but  further  north.  In  order  to  reach  this  gate  the  street,  as  shown 
on  the  plan,  makes  a  bend  to  the  north  which  is  reproduced  in 
the  other  east  and  west  streets  lying  south  of  Nola  Street ;  west 


A    BIRD'S-EYE    VIEW  ^^ 

of  the  Forum,  again,  the  streets  converge  in  order  to  give  access 
to  this  gate. 

The  other  deviation,  which  affects  Stabian  Street,  can  be 
explained  on  grounds  of  convenience.  This  street,  which  runs 
from  the  Stabian  to  the  Vesuvius  Gate,  abandoned  the  line  of 
the  north  and  south  streets  west  of  it  in  order  to  take  advan- 
tage of  a  natural  depression  in  the  hill,  by  following  which  an 
easy  grade  could  be  established  to  the  higher  parts  of  the  city  ; 
that  the  blocks  along  this  important  thoroughfare  might  not  be 
too  irregular  in  shape,  the  nearest  parallel  streets  on  the  east  were 
laid  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  follow  the  direction  of  Stabian  Street. 
The  street  running  south  from  the  Capua  Gate  resumes,  with 
slight  variation,  the  north  and  south  line  of  Mercury  Street. 

The  public  buildings  of  the  city  form  two  extensive  groups. 
One  group  lies  about  the  Forum  (Plan  II);  with  this  we  may 
reckon  the  Baths  in  the  first  block  north,  and  the  temples  of 
Fortuna  Augusta  and  Venus  Pompeiana.  The  nucleus  of  the 
other  is  formed  by  the  two  theatres  and  the  large  quadrangular 
colonnade  which,  designed  originally  to  afford  protection  for 
theatre-goers  against  the  rain,  was  later  turned  into  barracks  for 
the  gladiators  (Plan  III).  There  are  in  addition  only  four 
public  buildings  that  need  to  be  mentioned.  Two  are  bathing 
establishments,  the  Stabian  Baths,  and  those  at  the  corner  of 
Stabian  and  Nola  streets.  The  third  is  a  small  building  near 
the  Herculaneum  Gate,  consisting  of  a  hall  opening  on  the 
street,  with  a  base  for  a  statue  near  the  rear  wall ;  this  on  in- 
sufficient grounds  has  been  called  a  custom-house.  The  fourth, 
the  Amphitheatre,  lies  in  the  southern  corner  of  the  city. 

As  the  public  buildings  were  thus  located  in  clearly  defined 
groups,  it  is  not  probable  that  many  yet  remain  in  the  portion  of 
the  city  which  has  not  been  excavated.  We  may  expect  to  find 
only  bathing  establishments,  and  perhaps  one  or  two  temples. 
There  were  priestesses  of  Ceres  and  of  Venus,  but  the  sanctuary 
of  Ceres  has  not  been  discovered.  Mention  is  made  also  of  a 
priest  of  Mars  ;  but  the  temple  of  Mars,  according  to  the  pre- 
cept of  Vitruvius  (I.  vii.  i)  would  be  outside  the  city. 

A  word  should  be  added  regarding  the  modern  division  of 
Pompeii  into  Regions,  or  wards,  and  Insulae.      By  an  Insula  is 


34 


POMPEII 


meant  — ■  in  accordance  with  ancient  usage  —  a  block  of  houses 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  streets.  The  division  into  Regions 
was  introduced  by  Fiorelli,  and  rests  upon  a  misconception  which 
has  been  corrected  by  more  recent  excavations.  Fiorelli  thought 
that  the  Capua  Gate  and  the  Nocera  Gate  were  connected  by  a 
street,  and  that  the  city  was  thus  divided  by  four  streets  (the 
assumed  street,  Stabian  Street,  Nola  Street,  and  Abbondanza 
Street  with  its  continuations)  into  nine  Regions,  marked  on  our 
plan  with  the  numerals  I-IX. 

In  each  Region  every  block,  or  Insula,  has  its  number,  and  in 
the  Insula  a  separate  number  is  given  to  every  door  opening  on 
a  street.  This  arrangement  is  convenient  because  each  house 
can  be  accurately  designated  by  means  of  three  numbers. 

On  the  plans  the  Insulae  are  designated  by  Arabic  numerals, 
but  in  the  text  small  Roman  numerals  are  used  for  the  sake  of 
clearness;  thus,  Ins.  IX.  i.  26,  means  the  first  Insula  of  Region 
IX,  No.  26. 

The  names  of  several  of  the  more  important  streets,  as  of  the 
better  known  houses,  are  given  in  the  text  in  the  English  form. 


CHAPTER  VI 

BUILDING    MATERIALS,    CONSTRUCTION,    AND 
ARCHITECTURAL  PERIODS 

Six  centuries  lie  between  the  dates  of  the  earhest  and  the 
latest  buildings  at  Pompeii ;  and  in  order  to  understand  an)' 
structure  rightly  we  must  first  of  all  ascertain  to  what  period 
it  belongs.  It  is  indeed  rarely  possible  to  fix  dates  with  exact- 
ness for  the  earlier  time ;  but  certain  periods  are  so  clearly  dif- 
ferentiated from  one  another,  that  in  most  cases  there  is  no 
room  for  doubt  to  which  of  them  a  building  is  to  be  assigned. 
Before  undertaking  to  characterize  these  periods,  however,  it 
will  be  necessary  briefly  to  notice  what  building  materials  were 
used,  and  how  they  were  turned  to  account  in  construction. 

Exclusive  of  wood,  which  was  more  freely  used  in  Pompeii 
than  in  Campanian  towns  to-day,  the  principal  building  materi- 
als were  Sarno  limestone,  two  kinds  of  tufa  (gray  and  yellow), 
lava,  a  whitish  limestone  often  called  travertine  wrongly,  marble, 
and  brick. 

The  Sarno  limestone  {pietra  di  Sarno)  is  a  deposit  from  the 
water  of  the  Sarno,  and  is  found  in  beds  along  the  course  of  the 
river.  It  contains  many  impressions  of  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
plants,  and  varies  greatly  in  compactness ;  it  closely  resembles 
the  Roman  travertine,  except  that  it  has  a  more  decided  yellow- 
ish tint. 

Gray  tufa  is  a  volcanic  dust  which  has  been  hardened  by  the 
presence  of  water  into  rock.  It  has  a  fine  grain,  and  is  easily 
worked  ;  it  was  quarried  in  the  vicinity  of  Nocera.  The  volcanic 
dust  which  formed  the  yellow  tufa  was  thrown  out  in  an  earlier 
period,  when  the  Sarno  plain  was  still  a  part  of  the  sea,  and  so 
hardened  in  salt  water ;  it  is  more  friable  than  the  gray  tufa, 
and  not  so  durable. 

The  lava,  which  came  originally  from  Vesuvius,  was  quarried 

35 


36  POMPEII 

at  Pompeii.  Three  varieties  may  be  distinguished,  differing  in 
density  according  as  they  were  taken  from  the  lower  or  the 
upper  strata :  solid  lava,  or  basalt,  which,  being  heavy  and 
extremely  hard,  was  extensively  used  for  pavements  and  thresh- 
olds ;  slag,  like  the  scoriae  found  on  the  sides  of  Vesuvius 
to-day ;  and  cruma,  the  foam  of  the  lava  stream,  which  is  Hght 
and  porous,  but  on  account  of  its  hardness  has  good  resisting 
quahties. 

The  whitish  limestone  has  a  fine  texture,  without  impres- 
sions of  leaves,  and  is  of  an  even  color ;  it  was  to  some  extent 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  marble.  It  was  not  quarried  at 
Pompeii,  and  was  not  extensively  used  ;  the  most  important 
example  of  its  use  is  in  the  later  colonnade  about  the  Forum. 
The  white  Carrara  marble  (maniior  lunensc)  was  preferred  for 
columns,  pilasters,  and  architraves ;  but  colored  marbles  of 
many  varieties,  cut  into  thin  slabs  and  blocks,  were  used  as  a 
veneering  for  walls  and  in  the  mosaic  floors. 

Bricks  were  used  only  for  the  corners  of  buildings,  for  door- 
posts, and  in  a  few  instances,  as  in  the  Basilica  and  the  house 
of  the  Labyrinth,  for  columns ;  brick  walls  are  not  found  in 
Pompeii.  The  bricks  seen  in  corners  and  doorposts  (Figs.  1 1,  95) 
are  simply  a  facing  for  rubble  work.  They  are  ordinarily  less 
than  an  inch  thick ;  they  have  the  shape  of  a  right-angled 
triangle,  and  are  so  laid  that  the  side  representing  the  hypothe- 
nuse  —  about  six  inches  long  —  appears  in  the  surface  of  the 
wall.  Sometimes  fragments  of  roof  tiles,  more  or  less  irregular 
in  shape,  were  used  instead.  The  bricks  of  the  earlier  time 
contain  sea  sand  and  have  a  granular  surface,  with  a  less 
uniform  color ;  the  later  bricks  are  smooth  and  even  in 
appearance. 

The  flat  oblong  roof  tiles  {tcgulae\  measuring  ordinarily  24  by 
19  or  20  inches,  had  flanges  at  the  sides;  over  the  joints  where 
the  flanges  came  together,  joint  tiles  in  the  form  of  a  half- 
cylinder  {imbrices)  were  laid,  like  those  in  use  at  the  present 
day  (Figs.  114,  117). 

The  styles  of  masonry  are  characteristic  and  interesting. 
We  may  distinguish  them  as  masonry  with  limestone  frame- 
work, rubble  work,  reticulate  work,  quasi-reticulate  work,  ashlar 


CONSTRLX  riON 


37 


work,   and,   in  the   case  of  columns  and  entablatures,   massiv^e 
construction. 

The  masonry  with  limestone  framework  dates  from  the 
earliest  period.  The  walls  were  built  without  mortar,  clay 
being  used  instead.  Since  this  served  only  as  a  filling,  without 
strength  as  a  binding  material,  it  was  necessary  to  arrange  the 
stones  themselves  in  such  a  way  that  the  wall  would  stand  firm. 
This  result  was  accomplished  by  using  large,  oblong  blocks,  not 
only  for  corners  and  doorposts,  but  also  for  a  framework  in  the 
body  of  the  wall ;  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  alternate  vertical 


Fig.  9.  —  Wall  with  limestone  framework. 


and  horizontal  blocks  were  built  up  into  pillars  which  would 
hold  in  place  the  courses  of  smaller  stones  that  filled  the  inter- 
vening spaces.  The  material  of  the  larger,  hewn  blocks,  as  well 
as  of  the  smaller  fragments,  was  Sarno  limestone,  with  occa- 
sional pieces  of  cruma  or  slag. 

The  rubble  work,  opus  iiiccrtiim,  consists  of  fragments  irregu- 
lar in  shape,  of  the  size  of  the  fist  and  larger,  laid  in  mortar. 
The  material  used  in  the  earlier  times  was  ordinarily  lava ; 
later,  Sarno  limestone.  Corners  and  doorposts  at  first  were 
built  of  hewn  blocks  ;  afterwards  bricks  and  blocks  of  stone  cut 
in  the  form  of  bricks  were  used  for  this  purpose,  and  in  the 
latest  period  frequently  brick  and  stone  combined,  opus  mixtum 


38  POMPEII 

or  opus  conipositiiui  —  a  course  of  stone  alternating  with  every 
two  or  three  courses  of  brick.  An  example  of  the  opus  mixtuni 
is  seen  in  the  entrances  of  the  Herculaneum  Gate  (Fig.  113). 
Rubble  work  is  the  prevailing  masonry  at  Pompeii ;  in  compar- 
ison the  other  kinds  described  may  be  considered  exceptional. 

The  reticulate  work,  opus  reticulatuni,  formed  the  outer  sur- 
face of  a  wall,  the  inner  part  of  which  was  built  up  with  rubble. 
It  was  composed  of  small  four-sided  pyramidal  blocks,  of  which 
only  the  base,  cut  square  and  smooth,  showed  on  the  surface  ; 
the  tapering  part  served  as  a  key  to  bind  the  block  into  the 
wall.  These  blocks,  which  measured  from  three  to  four  inches 
square  at  the  base,  were  laid  on  their  corners,  so  that  the  edges 
ran  diagonally  to  the  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  of  the  wall; 
the  pattern  thus  formed  had  the  appearance  of  a  net,  hence  the 
name.  The  material  was  in  most  cases  gray,  occasionally 
yellow,  tufa.  The  corners  and  doorposts  were  at  first  made  of 
the  same  kind  of  stone  cut  in  the  shape  of  bricks  ;  later  of 
bricks.  This  style  of  masonry  was  in  vogue  at  Rome,  and 
apparently  also  at  Pompeii,  in  the  the  time  of  Augustus  (Fig. 
12 ;  see  also  the  pedestal  in  the  foreground  of  Plate  I). 

The  quasi-reticulate  work  belongs  to  the  early  years  of  the 
Roman  colony.  In  appearance  it  lies  between  rubble  and  reticu- 
late work,  differing  from  the  latter  in  that  the  small  blocks  are 
less  carefully  finished  and  are  laid  with  less  regularity.  The 
material  is  generally  lava,  but  tufa  and  limestone  are  also  found. 
The  corners  and  doorposts  are  of  brick,  or  of  brick-shaped 
blocks  of  tufa  or  Hmestone  (Fig.  11). 

Ashlar  work,  of  carefully  hewn  oblong  blocks  laid  in  courses, 
is  found  in  the  older  portions  of  the  city  wall  (Fig.  1C9)  and  in 
the  walls  of  the  Greek  temple  in  the  Forum  Triangulare  ;  it 
was  used  otherwise  only  for  the  fronts  of  houses  (Fig.  10).  The 
material  in  the  earliest  times  was  Sarno  limestone,  later  gray 
tufa.  With  the  coming  of  the  Roman  colony  ashlar  work  went 
out  of  use,  even  for  the  corners  of  houses  and  doorposts. 

In  the  construction  of  columns  and  many  architraves  large 
blocks  were  used.  Previous  to  the  time  of  the  Roman  colony 
these  were  of  gray  tufa,  or,  in  rare  instances,  of  limestone;  a 
coating  of  white   stucco  was  laid   on  the   surface.     From  the 


ARCHITECTURAL   PERIODS 


39 


advent  of  the   colony  to  the  time  of  the   Early   Empire,   the 
whitish  limestone  was  used  ;   after  that,  Carrara  marble. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  styles  of  construction  just  described,  we 
may  now  turn  to  the  architectural  history  of  Pompeii,  which,  as 
we  shall  see,  falls  naturally  into  six  periods. 

The  first  period  is  that  to  which  the  Doric  temple  in  the 
Forum  Triangulare  and  the  city  walls  belong.  From  the  style 
of  the  temple,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  it  was  built  in  the 
sixth  century  b.c.  ;  the  evidence  is  too  scanty  to  enable  us 
definitely  to  fix  the  date  of  the 
walls.  The  building  materials 
used  were  the  Sarno  limestone 
and  gray  tufa. 

The  second  period  may  be 
designated  as  the  Period  of  the 
Limestone  Atriums,  so  char- 
acterized from  the  peculiar 
construction  of  a  number  of 
houses  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  city.  On  the  side  facing 
the  street  these  houses  have 
walls  of  ashlar  work  of  Sarno 
limestone  (Fig.  lo),  but  the 
inner  walls  are  of  limestone 
framework  (Fig.  9). 

Almost  no  ornamental  forms 
belonging  to  this  period  have 
come  down  to  us  ;  so  far  only  a 
single  column  has  been  found, 
built  into  the  wall  of  a  house. 
It  is  of  the  Doric  style,  and 
once  formed  part  of  a  portico  that  ran  along  the  west  side  of 
the  small  open  space  at  the  northwest  corner  of  Stabian  and 
Nola  streets;  it  is  thus  the  sole  remnant  of  a  public  build- 
ing. In  the  only  complete  house  that  has  survived  from  this 
period,  the  house  of  the  Surgeon,  there  was  a  portico  in  front 
of  the  garden,  but  the  roof  was  supported  by  square  pillars, 
not  by  columns.     There  is  no  trace  of  wall  painting. 


1  s  lino  limestone, 
house  ot  the  buigeon. 


40  POMPEII 

Characteristic  as  the  construction  of  the  limestone  atriums  is, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  age  they  belong.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  period  cannot  be  determined  even  approxi- 
mately. The  end,  however,  is  fixed  by  the  earlier  limit  of  the 
next  period,  the  Second  Punic  War.  We  may,  therefore, 
assign  the  houses  with  the  limestone  atriums  to  a  period  just 
preceding  this  war;  reckoning  in  round  numbers,  they  were 
built  before  200  b.c. 

n       -.0^1     'In  the  third,  or  Tufa  Period,  came  the  climax  of  the  develop- 
/oo  -U»  uM  '■ 

'  ment  of  Pompeian  architecture  prior  to  the  Roman  domination. 

The  favorite  building  material  was  the  gray  tufa. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Greek  temple  mentioned  above, 
all  the  public  buildings  of  Pompeii  that  do  not  belong  to  the 
time  of  the  Roman  colony  have  a  homogeneous  character;  a 
list  of  them  would  include  the  colonnade  about  the  Forum,  the 
BasiUca,  the  temples  of  Apollo  and  of  Jupiter,  the  Large 
Theatre  with  the  colonnades  of  the  Forum  Triangulare  and 
the  Barracks  of  the  Gladiators,  the  Stabian  Baths,  the  Palaestra, 
and  the  outer  part  of  the  Porta  Marina  with  the  inner  parts 
of  the  other  gates.  Closely  associated  with  these  public  edifices 
is  a  large  number  of  private  houses ;  as  a  specially  character- 
istic example,  we  may  mention  the  house  of  the  Faun. 

All  these  buildings  are  similar  in  style  and  construction ; 
they  evidently  date  from  a  period  of  great  building  activity. 
It  must  also  have  been  a  period  of  peace  and  prosperity ;  for 
the  whole  city,  from  the  artistic  and  monumental  point  of  view, 
underwent  a  transformation.  Certain  Oscan  inscriptions,  an 
early  Latin  monumental  inscription,  and  a  few  words,  dating 
from  78  B.C.,  scratched  upon  the  plaster  of  the  Basilica,  oblige 
us  to  place  the  Tufa  Period  before  the  time  of  the  Roman 
colony ;  yet  not  long  before,  for  the  next  oldest  buildings  date 
from  the  first  years  of  the  colony.  The  time  of  peace  that 
furnished  the  background  for  the  period  can  only  have  been 
that  between  the  Second  Punic  War  and  the  Social  War,  about 
200  to  90  B.C.  ;  the  Tufa  Period  was  approximately  the  second 
century  before  Christ. 

In  marked  contrast  with  the  Period  of  the  Limestone  Atriums, 
the   Tufa   Period   has   a   pronounced    artistic    character.     It   is 


ARCHITECTURAL   PERIODS  41 

preeminently  a  period  of  monumental  construction.  Buildings 
and  public  places  are  adorned  with  colonnades  of  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders.  The  simple  and  beautiful  forms 
of  the  Greek  architecture  are  used,  sparingly  indeed,  but 
without  petty  detail  and  with  evident  fear  of  excessive  orna- 
mentation. Columns  and  architraves  are  white,  with  only  slight 
suggestion  of  the  earlier  Greek  polychrome  decoration.  A 
variety  of  color,  however,  is  laid  on  the  walls,  and  with  this 
period  the  history  of  Pompeian  wall  decoration  begins. 

The  Tufa  Period  coincides  throughout  with  the  time  of 
the  first  style  of  decoration.  This,  known  as  the  Incrusta- 
tion Style,  aimed  to  imitate  in  stucco  the  appearance  of  a  wall 
veneered  with  colored  marbles.  Wall  paintings  are  wholly  lack- 
ing, but  pictures,  often  of  rare  beauty,  are  found  in  the  mosaics 
of  the  floors.  In  this  period,  we  may  truly  say  that  Pompeian 
architecture  was  at  its  best.  With  it  the  pure  Greek  tradition 
dies  out ;  all  the  buildings  of  later  times  bear  the  Roman 
stamp. 

The  buildings  of  the  Tufa  Period  are  easily  recognized  by 
the  unobtrusiveness  of  the  materials  used  in  their  construction. 
The  rubble  work  is  mostly  of  lava ;  but  gray  tufa  was  used 
exclusively,  not  only  for  ashlar  work  in  facades,  but  also  for 
columns  and  entablatures.  The  surface  of  the  tufa  was  coated 
with  a  layer  of  fine  white  stucco,  which  gave  it  the  appearance 
of  marble.  The  use  of  marble  for  building  purposes,  however, 
is  foreign  to  this  period ;  and  it  speaks  well  for  the  culture  of 
the  Oscan  Pompeians  that  they  had  pleasure  in  beauty  of  form 
above  richness  of  material. 

The  fourth  period  covers  the  earlier  decades  of  the  Roman 
colony,  from  80  b.c.  to  near  the  end  of  the  Republic.  Accord- 
ing to  inscriptions  which  are  still  extant,  soon  after  the  year 
80  a  wealthy  colonist,  Gains  Quinctius  Valgus,  when  duumvir 
with  Marcus  Porcius  as  colleague,  built  the  Small  Theatre,  and 
afterwards,  when  quinquennial  duumvir  with  the  same  col- 
league, the  Amphitheatre  also.  Both  structures  have  the  quasi- 
reticulate  facing  (Fig.  11);  and  several  other  buildings  in  which 
the  same  style  of  masonry  is  found  without  doubt  belong  to 
the  same   period  —  the   Baths  near  the  Forum,  the  temple  of 


42 


POMPEII 


Zeus  Milichius,  a  building  just  inside  the  Porta  Marina,  and 
apparently  the  hall  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  Forum, 
which  we  shall  identify  as  the  Comitium ;  with  these  should 
be  included  also  the  original  temple  of  Isis,  which  was  destroyed 
by  the  earthquake  of  63  a.d.  Few  houses  dating  from  this 
period  have  been  discovered ;  the  provision  made  by  the  pre- 
ceding period  in  this  respect  had  been  so  generous  that  new 
houses  were  not  needed. 

From  the  aesthetic  point  of  view  the  fourth  period  falls  far 
below  that  just  preceding;  the  exhaustion  of  resources  and  the 
decline  of  taste  due  to  the  long  and  terrible  war  are  unmistaka- 
ble. Theatre,  Amphitheatre,  and 
Baths  were  alike  built  for  imme- 
diate use,  with  crude  and  scanty 
ornamentation;  and  where 
richer  ornament  was  applied,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  temple  of  Isis, 
it  could  not  for  a  moment  be 
compared  with  that  of  the  Tufa 
Period  in  beauty  and  finish. 

The  wall  decoration  of  the 
fourth  period  is  of  the  second 
Pompeian  style,  which  came  into 
vogue  just  after  the  founding  of 
the  colony,  and  which  we  shall 
call  the  Architectural  Style ;  for 
in  part,  as  the  first  style,  it  imi- 
tated a  veneering  of  marble,  not  however  with  the  help  of  slabs 
or  panels  modelled  in  stucco,  but  by  the  use  of  color  only,  laid 
on  walls  finished  to  a  plane  surface  ;  in  part  it  made  use  of 
architectural  designs  which  were  painted  either  correctly  or 
with  at  least  some  regard  for  proper  proportions. 

The  fifth  period  extends  from  the  last  decades  of  the  Repub- 
lic to  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63  a.d.  In  the  entire  period, 
covering  more  than  a  century,  we  are  unable  to  distinguish  a 
series  of  buildings  which  may  be  classed  together  in  style  and 
construction  as  constituting  a  homogeneous,  representative 
group.      Here  and  there  we  can  point  out  a  piece  of  masonry 


Fig.  II. —  Quasi-reticulate  facing,  \vith 
brick  corner,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Small  Theatre. 


ARCHITECTURAL   PERIODS 


43 


which,  from  its  similarity  to  that  of  the  fourth  period,  may  be 
assigned  to  the  end  of  the  Republic  ;  again,  walls  with  reticu- 
late facing  of  tufa  and  corners  of  brick-shaped  blocks  of  the 
same  stone  belong  to  the  time  of  Augustus  (Fig.  12),  while  retic- 
ulate work  with  corners  of  brick  (Fig.  95)  is  of  later  date;  but 
there  is  a  total  lack  of  those  distinguishing  characteristics  which 
would  serve  to  set  off  by  themselves  all  the  buildings  belonging 
to  a  particular  time.  Consequently  in  the  case  of  each  struc- 
ture it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  all  the  circumstances, 


Fig.  12. —  Reticulate  facing,  with  corners  of  brick-sliaped  stone.     The  tilled  arch  is 
probably  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  wall  over  a  sewer. 


and  then  to  form  an  independent  judgment  regarding  its  style 
and  date. 

The  difficulty  is  further  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  three  styles 
of  wall  decoration  fall  within  the  limits  of  the  same  period. 
The  Architectural  Style,  already  mentioned,  remained  in  vogue 
to  the  time  of  Augustus;  it  then  gave  place  to  the  third  or 
Ornate  Style,  which  is  characterized  by  a  freer  use  of  ornament 
and  the  introduction  of  designs  and  scenes  suggestive  of  an 
Egyptian  origin.  The  fourth  or  Intricate  Style  came  in  about 
the  year  50  a.d.,  and  represents,  with  its  involved  and  fantastic 


44  POMPEII 

designs,  the  last  stage  in  the  development  of  Pompeian  wall 
decoration.  In  the  fifth  period  marble  began  to  be  employed 
as  a  building  material ;  the  earliest  dated  example  of  its  use  is 
the  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  erected  about  3  b.c. 

The  sixteen  years  between  the  earthquake  of  63  a.d.  and  the 
destruction  of  the  city  form  the  sixth  period  in  the  architectural 
history  of  Pompeii.  The  buildings  belonging  to  it  can  be  easily 
recognized,  not  only  from  their  similarity  in  style  and  ornament, 
but  also  from  certain  external  characteristics,  as  newness  of  ap- 
pearance, unfinished  condition,  and  the  joining  of  new  to  broken 
walls.  The  only  important  building  wholly  new  is  the  large 
bathing  establishment,  the  Central  Baths,  at  the  corner  of 
Stabian  and  Nola  streets.  For  the  rest,  effort  seems  to  have 
been  directed  toward  lestoring  the  ruined  buildings  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  their  original  condition.  The  wall  decoration 
throughout  is  of  the  Intricate  Style. 

The  measurements  of  buildings  in  the  Roman  Period  con- 
form to  the  scale  of  the  Roman  foot,  while  the  dimensions  of 
structures  antedating  the  Roman  colony  in  most  cases  reduce 
to  the  scale  of  the  Oscan  or  old  Italic  foot.  The  Roman  foot 
(296  mm.)  may  be  roughly  reckoned  at  0.97  of  the  English  foot 
(304.8  mm.);  the  Oscan  foot  (275  mm.)  is  considerably  shorter. 
As  the  Roman  standard  is  of  Greek  origin,  we  may  perhaps  find 
a  structure  conforming  to  it  that  was  designed  by  a  Greek 
architect  before  the  Roman  Period. 


KEY    TO    PLAN    II 


A.  The  Forum. 

1.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Augus- 

tus. 

2.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Claud- 

ius. 

3.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Agrip- 

pina. 

4.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Nero. 

5.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Calig- 

ula. 

6.  Pedestals  of  equestrian  statues. 

7.  Pedestals  ot  standing  figures. 

8.  Pedestal    for    three    equestrian 

statues. 

9.  Speaker's  platform  (p.  48). 

ID.    Table    of    standard    measures 

(p.  92). 
1 1 .    Room     of    the    supervisor    of 

measures. 

B.  The  Basilica. 
a.    Entrance  court. 

1.  Corridor. 

2.  Main  room. 

3.  Tribunal. 

4-4.    Rooms  at  the  ends  of   the  tri- 
bunal. 

C.  The  Temple  of  Apollo. 

1 .  Colonnade. 

2.  Podium. 

3.  Cella. 

4.  Altar. 

5.  Sundial. 

6.  Sacristan's  room. 

7-7.    Rooms  made  from  earlier  colon- 
nade. 

D.  D'.   Market  Buildings. 

E.  Latrina. 

F.  F.   CiTV  Treasury. 


G.  Commemorative  Arch. 

H.  Temple  of  Jupiter. 

I.    Arch  of  Tiberius. 

K.  The  Provision  Market  —  Ma- 

CELLUM. 

1.  Portico. 

2.  Colonnade. 
3-3.    Market  stalls. 

4.  Market  for  meat  and  fish. 

5.  Chapel  of  the  imperial  family. 

6.  Banquet  room. 

7.  Round     structure    with     water 

basin  —  Tholus. 

8.  Pen. 

L.  Sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares 

1.  Main   room,  unroofed,  with  an 

altar  in  the  centre. 

2.  Apse,  with  shrine. 

3.  Reces.ses  with  pedestals. 

4.  Niche  opening  on  the  Forum. 

M.    Temple  of  Vespasian. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Altar. 

3.  Cella. 

4.  Portico. 

N.    The  Building  of  Eumachia. 
See  plan  on  p.  1 10. 

O.   The     Voting     Place— Co.mi- 
tium. 

1.  Recess   opening   on    the   main 

room. 

2.  Recess  opening  on  the  Forum. 

P-R.    Municipal   Buildings. 
P.    Office  of  the  duumvirs. 
Q.    Hall  of  the  city  council. 
R.    Office  of  the  aediles. 


S.   Fountain. 


Scale  of  English  Feet 
iQ  so  30  so 


Scale  of  Metres 

PLAN    II.  — THE    FCRUM   WITH   THE   ADJOINING   BUILDINGS. 


PART    I 

PUBLIC    PLACES   AND    BUILDINGS 

CHAPTER   VII 

THE  FORUM 

The  Forum  is  usually  approached  from  the  west  side  by  the 
short,  steep  street  leading  from  the  Porta  Marina.  Entering, 
we  find  ourselves  near  the  lower  end  of  an  oblong  open  space 
(Plate  I),  at  the  upper  end  of  which,  toward  Vesuvius,  stands 
a  high  platform  of  masonry  with  the  ruins  of  a  temple  —  the 
temple  of  Jupiter ;  the  remains  of  a  colonnade  are  seen  on 
each  of  the  other  three  sides.  Including  the  colonnade  the 
Forum  measures  approximately  497  feet  in  length  by  1 56  in 
breadth;  without  it  the  dimensions  are  467  and  126  feet.  The 
north  side,  at  the  left  of  the  temple,  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  in 
which  there  are  two  openings,  one  at  the  end  of  the  colonnade, 
the  other  between  this  and  the  temple ;  at  the  right  the  wall 
bounding  the  open  space  has  been  replaced  by  a  stately  com- 
memorative arch,  while  the  end  of  the  colonnade  is  closed  by 
a  wall  with  a  passageway.  Another  arch,  of  much  simpler 
construction,  stands  at  the  left  of  the  temple,  in  line  with 
the  facade ;  it  cuts  off  the  area  between  the  temple  and  the 
colonnade  from  the  rest  of  the  Forum.  A  third  arch  once  stood 
in  a  corresponding  position  at  the  right. 

The  colonnade  is  nowhere  intersected  by  a  street  passable  for 
vehicles.  Even  the  entrances  on  the  north  side  form  no  excep- 
tion. At  the  left  you  descend  to  the  area  by  several  steps,  at 
the  right  by  one  only  ;  yet  here  the  exclusion  of  carts  and  wagons 
was  made  doubly  sure  by  placing  three  upright  stones  in  the 
passageway.     Only    pedestrians    could  enter   the    Forum,   and 

45 


46  POMPEII 

they,  too,  could  easily  be  shut  out  by  means  of  gates  in  the 
entrances ;  the  places  where  the  gates  swung  can  still  be  seen 
in  the  pavement,  and  one  of  them  is  shown  in  a  painting 
(Fig.  i6).  Xo  private  houses  opened  on  this  area;  it  was 
wholly  given  up  to  the  public  life  of  the  city  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  temples,  markets,  and  buildings  devoted  to  the 
civic  administration. 

The  colonnade  was  not  uniform  in  character  upon  all  the 
three  sides.  As  will  be  seen  from  our  plan  (Plan  II),  on  the 
south  side,  and  on  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  east  side  as  far 
as  Abbondanza  Street,  it  was  constructed  with  two  rows  of  col- 
umns and  had  a  double  depth.  On  the  east  side  north  of  this 
street  the  porticos  in  front  of  four  successive  buildings  (K,  L, 
M,  N)  took  its  place.  For  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  the  col- 
onnade was  built  in  two  stories,  the  lower  of  the  Doric,  the  upper 
of  the  Ionic  order.  The  upper  gallery  was  made  accessible  by 
three  stairways,  at  the  southeast  and  southwest  corners  of  the 
Forum  and  at  the  middle  of  the  west  side ;  on  the  east  side  it 
did  not  extend  beyond  Abbondanza  Street. 

The  portico  in  front  of  the  first  of  the  four  buildings  referred 
to,  that  of  Eumachia,  contained  a  double  series  of  columns,  one 
above  the  other,  corresponding  in  style  and  dimensions  with 
those  of  the  colonnade ;  but  there  was  no  upper  floor  running 
back  from  the  intervening  entablature.  The  arrangement  in 
front  of  the  fourth  building,  the  Macellum,  was  similar ;  as  the 
remains  of  the  porticos  in  front  of  the  two  intervening  buildings 
have  wholly  disappeared,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  their 
character. 

The  area  of  the  Forum  was  paved  with  rectangular  flags  of 
whitish  limestone.  In  front  of  the  colonnade,  the  pavement  of 
which  was  about  twenty  inches  above  that  of  the  open  space, 
a  broad  step  or  ledge  projected,  covering  a  gutter  for  rain 
water ;  the  water  found  its  way  into  the  gutter  through  semi- 
circular openings  in  the  outer  edge  of  the  step. 

Of  the  many  statues  that  once  adorned  the  Forum  not 
one  has  been  found.  As  may  be  seen  from  the  pedestals 
still  in  place,  they  were  of  three  kinds,  and  varied  greatly  in 
size. 


THE    FORUM  47 

First,  statues  of  citizens  who  had  rendered  distinguished 
services  were  placed  in  front  of  the  colonnade  on  the  ledge 
over  the  gutter.  Four  pedestals  that  once  supported  statues 
of  this  sort  may  be  seen  on  the  west  side. 

Then  equestrian  statues  of  life  size  were  set  up  in  front  of  the 
ledge,  these  also  in  honor  of  dignitaries  of  the  city  (Fig.  17). 
On  one  of  the  pedestals  the  veneering  of  colored  marble  is 
still  preserved,  with  an  inscription  showing  that  the  person 
represented  was  Ouintus  Sallustius,  "  Duumvir,  Quinquennial 
Duumvir,  Patron  of  the  Colony." 

Finally,  on  the  south  side,  the  life  size  equestrian  statues, 
which  seem  at  the  outset  to  have  been  arranged  symmetrically, 
were  almost  all  removed  in  order  to  make  room  for  four  much 
larger  statues,  the  pedestals  of  which  still  remain  (Fig.  53,  p. 
122).  These  must  have  represented  emperors,  or  members  of 
the  imperial  families.  The  pedestal  in  the  middle,  which  is  in 
the  form  of  an  arch  almost  square  at  the  base,  is  much  the 
oldest.  Upon  it  was  probably  placed  a  colossal  statue  of 
Augustus.  It  is  incredible  that  during  the  long  and  success- 
ful reign  of  the  first  emperor  no  statue  in  his  honor  should 
have  been  erected  in  Pompeii ;  and  this  is  the  most  suitable 
place.  The  other  three  pedestals  are  similar  in  construction, 
and  clearly  belong  together.  The  one  at  the  right  (2  on  the 
plan)  supported  a  colossal  equestrian  statue;  that  at  the  left  (3) 
a  colossal  standing  figure ;  on  the  third,  further  forward  (4), 
was  a  smaller  equestrian  statue.  Here  stood,  then,  emperor, 
empress,  and  crown  prince  —  Claudius,  Agrippina,  Nero. 

A  fifth  pedestal,  for  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  same  size  as 
that  of  Nero,  is  seen  further  to  the  north,  in  front  of  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  (5).  While  unquestionably  later  than  the  time  of 
Augustus,  it  must  on  the  other  hand  be  older  than  the  pedestals 
of  members  of  the  Claudian  family  ;  for  aside  from  himself,  no 
one  belonging  to  Nero's  time  can  be  taken  into  consideration, 
and  after  his  death  the  Forum  lay  in  ruins  in  consequence  of 
the  earthquake  of  the  year  63.  Who  stood  here,  however,  can 
scarcely  be  even  conjectured.  Not  necessarily  an  emperor;  the 
younger  Drusus,  for  instance,  Tiberius's  son,  or  Germanicus 
might  have  been  thus  honored  if  they  had  in  any  way  come 


48  POMPEII 

into  relation  with  the  Pompeians.  But  if  an  emperor,  it  must 
have  been  Caligula ;  another  place  was  provided  for  the  statue 
of  Tiberius. 

In  the  south  side  of  the  arch  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
Forum  are  two  niches.  It  is  highly  probable  that  statues  of 
the  two  oldest  sons  of  Germanicus,  Nero  and  Drusus,  were 
placed  in  them ;  a  fragment  of  an  inscription  referring  to  the 
former  was  found  near  by.  These  became  presumptive  heirs 
to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Tiberius's  son  Drusus,  in  23 
A.D ;  but  both  afterwards  fell  victims  to  the  morbid  suspicions 
of  the  emperor  and  the  plots  of  Sejanus,  Nero  in  29  a.d., 
Drusus  four  years  later. 

On  the  top  of  the  arch  an  equestrian  statue  of  Tiberius  prob- 
ably stood.  That  such  a  statue  was  placed  here  seems  clear 
from  analogy.  North  of  this  arch  was  another,  almost  in  line 
with  it,  at  the  end  of  Mercury  Street  where  it  opens  into  Nola 
Street ;  and  here  the  excavators  found  fragments  of  a  bronze 
equestrian  statue  which  were  put  together  and  set  up  in  the 
Naples  Museum.  Whether  this  statue  represented  Caligula  or 
Nero  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  the  former  is  really 
excluded  from  consideration  by  the  short,  heavy  figure,  which  is 
better  suited  to  Nero.  There  is  no  decided  resemblance  to 
Nero  either;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that,  although  as  crown 
prince  he  had  been  honored  with  a  statue  in  the  Forum,  the 
Pompeians  thought  it  best  to  erect  for  him  as  emperor  a  more 
imposing  monument. 

Before  leaving  the  area  we  may  raise  the  question  whether  it 
contained  a  speakers'  platform,  like  the  Rostra  in  the  Roman 
Forum.  If  we  have  reference  to  a  special  structure,  probably 
not ;  no  trace  of  a  separate  tribunal  has  been  discovered.  The 
orator  who  wished  to  address  the  people,  however,  could  mount 
the  broad  platform  in  front  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  on  which 
once  an  altar  stood ;  before  him  the  audience  could  gather  in 
the  open,  on  the  only  side  of  the  Forum  free  from  the  colon- 
nade. This  place  w^ell  suited  the  convenience  of  both  speaker 
and  hearers.  It  is  possible  that  we  should  also  identify  as  a 
tribune  the  platform  in  a  recess  at  the  southeast  corner  (p.  120). 

On  even  a  cursory  inspection  the  Forum  is  seen  to  lack  unity 


1: 

I 


THE    FORUM 


49 


in  the  details  of  its  plan  and  in  its  architecture  ;  the  fact  soon 
becomes  apparent  that  it  reached  its  final  form  only  as  the 
result  of  a  long  period  of  development.  It  will  be  worth  while 
briefly  to  trace  this  development,  and  to  note  at  least  the  more 
important  changes  which  followed  one  another  in  the  course  of 
the  centuries. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  Forum  was  merely  an  open  square 
bounded  by  four  streets. 

The  proof  that  this  was  the  original  form  is  in  part  based 


Fig.  13.  —  Noith  end  of  the  Foium,  with  the  leniple  of  Jupiter,  lestoied. 

upon  the  orientation  of  the  temple  of  Apollo.  The  sides  of 
this  temple  have  the  same  direction  as  the  north  and  south 
streets  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city,  and  must  have  been 
laid  out  parallel  with  a  street  that  once  ran  between  it  and 
the  Forum.  The  temple  is,  therefore,  older  than  the  colon- 
nade of  the  Forum,  which  shows  a  marked  deviation  from  the 
line  of  its  axis ;  the  divergence,  as  may  be  seen  on  our  plan, 
was  in  part  concealed  by  making  a  difference  in  the  thickness 
of  the  pillars  between  the  court  of  the  temple  and  the  Forum. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  colonnade  on  the  west  side  takes  the  place 
of  an  older  street ;  the  south  side  was  probably  defined  by  the 
prolongation  of  Abbondanza  Street  toward  the  southwest. 


50  POMPEII 

Near  the  southeast  corner  an  inscription  was  found  :  V\_tdi?/s] 
Popidius  EpSjdii^  f  [iliiis^  q\aestor'\  porticiis  faciendas  coemvit, 
'  Vibius  Popidius,  the  son  of  Epidius,  when  quaestor  caused  this 
colonnade  to  be  erected.'  No  clew  to  the  date  is  given,  but  it 
must  have  been  before  the  coming  of  the  Roman  colony,  for 
after  that  time  there  was  no  office  of  quaestor  in  Pompeii.  It 
must  also  have  been  before  the  Social  War ;  in  those  years  of 
tumult  an  extensive  colonnade  would  not  have  been  built,  and 
when  the  national  spirit  was  so  vehemently  asserting  itself,  we 
should  expect  to  find  inscriptions  upon  public  works  in  the 
Oscan  language,  certainly  not  in  Latin.  But  the  use  of  Latin 
may  very  \vell  date  from  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  alliance 
with  Rome ;  we  may  then  with  much  probability  assign  the  in- 
scription to  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  b.c. 

Remains  of  the  colonnade  of  Popidius  are  still  to  be  seen  on 
the  south  side,  and  on  the  adjoining  part  of  the  east  side,  ex- 
tending just  across  Abbondanza  Street ;  traces  of  it  are  found 
also  on  the  west  side, where  it  was  afterward  replaced  by  a  new 
structure.  On  the  east  side  north  of  Abbondanza  Street  no  traces 
remain ;  the  appearance  of  this  part  of  the  Forum  was  entirely 
changed  when  the  four  buildings  (K,  L,  M,  N)  with  their  por- 
ticos were  erected,  but  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  original 
colonnade  extended  here  also.  Our  illustration  (Fig.  14)  shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  Doric  columns  in  the  lower  story ;  of 
the  Ionic  columns  above  only  scanty  fragments  have  been 
recovered.  The  appearance  of  the  whole  may  be  suggested  by 
our  restoration  (Fig.  13). 

In  style  and  construction  this  colonnade  belongs  to  the  Tufa 
Period  (p.  40).  While  the  forms  are  not  those  of  the  classical 
period,  they  nevertheless  manifest  Greek  feeling.  The  low  ratio 
in  the  proportions  of  the  Doric  columns,  of  which  the  height  is 
equal  to  five  diameters,  well  accords  with  their  use  as  a  support 
for  an  upper  gallery ;  elsewhere  in  pre-Roman  Pompeii  more 
slender  proportions  are  preferred,  even  for  the  Doric  style. 
The  shaft  is  well  shaped,  with  a  moderate  swelling  {entasis). 
Only  the  upper  part  is  fluted ;  as  the  sharp  edges  of  the  flutings 
near  the  bottom  might  easily  be  marred,  the  divisions  of  the  sur- 
face on  the  lower  third  of  the  shaft  were  left  flat. 


THE    FORUM 


51 


The  architrave  is  relatively  low,  the  result  of  an  interesting 
peculiarity  in  the  method  of  construction.  Blocks  of  tufa  long 
enough  to  span  the  intercolumniations  were  too  weak  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  rest  of  the  entablature.  To  meet  this  diffi- 
culty a  line  of  thick  planks  was  placed  in  old  Italic  fashion  above 
the  capitals  of  the  columns,  and  on  these  were  laid  short  tufa 
blocks.  Thus  in  our  illustration  (Fig.  14),  while  the  upper  of 
the  two  bands  of  the  architrave  is  seen  to  be  of  stone,  the  lower 
shows  the  modern  timber  supplied  in  the  place  of  the  ancient. 
That   the    planks  were   in   reality  no   thicker   than    has    been 


Fig.  14. —  Remnant  of  the  colonnade  of  Popidius,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Forum. 


assumed  in  the  reconstruction  is  proved  beyond  question  by  the 
later  colonnade  on  the  west  side,  which,  although  entirely  of 
stone,  corresponds  throughout  in  its  proportions  with  the  older 
one  ;  the  architrave  is  equally  narrow,  and  is  likewise  divided 
into  two  parts. 

This  explanation  is  curiously  confirmed  by  an  architectural 
painting  on  the  garden  wall  of  one  of  the  finest  houses  of  the 
Tufa  Period,  the  house  of  the  Faun.  Here  we  find  pilasters 
and  entablature,  except  the  architrave,   painted  white  ;  but  the 


52  POMPEII 

architrave  is  painted  in  two  bands,  of  which  the  lower  is  yellow, 
as  if  to  represent  wood.  Nothing  would  have  been  easier  than  to 
leave  the  architrave,  moulded  in  stucco,  of  one  color  as  if  it  were 
all  of  one  material ;  but  special  effort  was  made  apparently  to 
indicate  the  appearance  of  a  lower  division  of  timber.  From 
this  we  may  infer  that  in  actual  construction  no  pains  was  taken 
to  conceal  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  structural  materials  by  lay- 
ing a  coat  of  white  or  colored  stucco  over  wood  and  stone  alike  ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  difference  was  not  only  recognized  in  the 
decoration,  but  even  accentuated,  as  the  timber,  whether  retain- 
ing its  original  color  or  painted  with  a  suitable  tint,  presented  a 
marked  contrast  with  the  stone  the  surface  of  which  was  cov- 
ered with  white  stucco.  If  the  strip  of  timber  in  the  architrave 
had  been  perceptibly  thicker  than  that  of  stone  above  it,  the 
effect  would  not  have  been  good ;  as  the  earlier  Greek  poly- 
chrome decoration  was  now  no  longer  in  vogue,  the  stripe  of 
color  above  the  capitals  made  a  pleasing  variation  from  the 
prevailing  whiteness  of  the  structure. 

The  Basilica  at  the  southwest  corner  and  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  both  conform  to  the  same  variation  from  the  direction 
of  the  early  north  and  south  street  that  we  have  noticed  in  the 
case  of  the  colonnade  of  Popidius ;  they  belong,  therefore,  to 
the  same  remodelling  of  the  Forum.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
the  erection  of  the  temple,  by  limiting  the  area  of  the  Forum 
on  the  north  side,  caused  its  extension  toward  the  south 
beyond  the  earlier  boundary.  Originally  the  temple  was  iso- 
lated, the  north  end  of  the  Forum  on  either  side  being  left 
open ;  later,  but  still  in  the  time  of  the  Republic,  a  high 
boundary  wall  with  passageways  was  built  on  both  sides  of  it. 
Later  still  the  two  arches  were  erected  in  a  line  with  its  facade ; 
afterwards,  in  the  time  of  Tiberius,  the  wall  at  the  right  of 
the  temple  was  replaced  by  the  commemorative  arch  (I),  and 
the  smaller  arch  near  the  facade  at  the  right  was  removed 
in  order  that  there  might  be  an  unimpeded  view  of  the  great 
arch  from  the  area. 

The  colonnade  of  Popidius  may  have  stood  for  more  than 
a  century ;  the  necessity  of  making  thoroughgoing  repairs  no 
doubt  became  urgent.     In  the  meantime,  however,  the  taste  of 


THE    FORUM 


53 


the  Pompeians  had  undergone  a  change,  and  instead  of  repair- 
ing the  old  colonnade  they  began  to  replace  it  by  a  new  one, 
a  part  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  Better  material,  the 
whitish  limestone,  was  used,  and  the  construction  was  more 
substantial ;  the  blocks  of  the  entablature  were  fitted  together 
so  as  to  form  a  flat  arch.  Though  the  new  colonnade  followed 
closely  the  proportions  of  the  old,  effective  details,  such  as  the 
fluting  of  the  columns,  and  the  triglyphs  with  the  guttae  under- 


Fig.  Is.  —  Part  of  the  new  colonnade,  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  I  orum. 


neath,  were  omitted.  The  refined  sense  of  form  characteristic 
of  the  earlier  time  was  no  longer  manifest ;  all  is  coarse  and  in- 
artistic, the  swelling  on  the  shafts  of  the  columns,  for  example, 
being  carried  too  high. 

The  new  colonnade  had  a  second  story  of  the  Ionic  order,  of 
the  columns  of  which  (though  not  of  the  entablature)  consider- 
able fragments  have  been  found.  The  stylobate  on  which  the 
columns  rested  was  renewed  in  limestone,  and  about  the  same 
time  the  Forum  was  paved  and  the  ledge  over  the  gutter  was 
laid  with  flaars  of  the  same  material. 


54 


POMPEII 


This  second  remodelling  of  the  Forum  commenced  in  the 
early  years  of  the  Empire,  the  pavement  having  been  laid 
before  the  pedestal  of  the  monument  to  Augustus  was  built. 
It  was  never  carried  to  completion.  On  the  west  side  the 
new  colonnade  was  almost  finished  when  the  earthquake  of 
the  year  63  threw  it  nearly  all  down.  At  the  time  of  the 
eruption  only  the  columns  at  the  south  end  of  this  side,  which 
had  safely  passed  through  the  earthquake,  were  still  stand- 
ing with  their  entablature;  they  are  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The 
area  was  then  strewn  with  blocks,  which  the  stonecutters  were 
engaged  in  making  ready  for  the  rebuilding. 

The  Forum  of  Pompeii,  as  of  other  ancient  cities,  was  first 
of  all  a  market  place.  Early  in  the  morning  the  country  folk 
gathered  here  with  the  products  of  the  farm  ;  here  all  day  long 
tradespeople  of  every  sort  exhibited  their  wares.  In  later 
times  the  pressure  of  business  led  to  the  erection  of  separate 
buildings  around  the  Forum  to  relieve  the  congestion ;  such 
were  the  Macellum,  used  as  a  provision  market  ;  the  Eumachia 
building,  erected  to  accommodate  the  clothing  trade  ;  the  Basilica 
and  the  market  house  west  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  devoted 
to  other  branches  of  trade.  Yet  in  a  literal  sense  the  Forum 
always  remained  the  business  centre  of  the  city. 

It  served,  too,  as  the  favorite  promenade  and  lounging  place, 
where  men  met  to  discuss  matters  of  mutual  interest,  or  to 
indulge  in  gossip.  Here  idlers  loitered  and  plied  busier  men 
with  questions  regarding  public  affairs,  makers  and  dealers 
came  together  to  talk  over  and  settle  points  of  difference,  and 
young  people  pursued  their  romantic  adventures.  He  can  best 
form  an  idea  of  this  bustling,  ceaseless,  varied  activity  who 
knows  what  the  piazza  means  in  the  life  of  a  modern  Italian 
city,  and  stops  to  consider  how  much  has  been  taken  from  the 
life  of  the  piazza  by  the  cafes  and  similar  places  of  resort  ; 
modern  squares,  moreover,  are  usually  not  provided,  as  were  the 
ancient,  with  inviting  colonnades,  affording  protection  against 
both  sun  and  rain. 

The  life  of  the  Forum  seemed  so  interesting  to  one  of  the 
citizens  of  Pompeii  that  he  devoted  to  the  portrayal  of  it 
a  series  of  paintings  on  the  walls  of  a  room.     The  pictures  are 


THE    FORUM 


55 


light  and  sketchy,  but  they  give  a  vivid  representation  of 
ancient  Hfe  in  a  small  city.  First,  in  front  of  the  equestrian 
statues  near  the  colonnade  we  see  dealers  of  every  kind  and 
description.  There  sits  a  seller  of  copper  vessels  and  iron 
utensils  (Fig.  i6),  so  lost  in  thought  that  a  friend  is  calling 
his  attention  to  a  possible  purchaser  who  is  just  coming  up. 
Next  come  two  shoemakers,  one  waiting  on  women,  another 
on  men  ;  then  two  cloth  dealers.  Further  on  a  man  is  selling 
portions  of  warm  food  from  a  kettle  ;  then  we  see  a  woman 
with  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  a  man  sellino-  bread.     Another 


Fig.  i6.  —  Scene  in  the  Forum. 

In  the  foreground,  at  the  left,  dealer  in  utensils;  at  the  right,  shoemaker  waiting  on  four 

ladies.    Wall  painting. 


dealer  in  utensils  is  engaged  in  eager  bargaining,  while  his  son, 
squatting  on  the  ground,  mends  a  pot. 

The  scenes  now  change.  A  man  sitting  with  a  writing  tablet 
and  stylus  listens  closely  to  the  words  of  another  who  stands 
near  by ;  he  reminds  us  of  the  scribes  who,  under  the  portico  of 
the  theatre  of  San  Carlo,  at  Naples,  write  letters  for  those  that 
have  been  denied  the  privilege  of  an  education. 

Then  come  men  wearing  tunics,  engaged  in  some  transaction, 
in  the  course  of  which  they  seem  to  pass  judgment  on  the  con- 
tents of  bottles  which  they  hold  in  their  hands ;  their  business 
perhaps  involves  the  testing  of  wine.  Beyond  these,  some  men 
are  taking  a  walk;   a  woman  is  giving  alms  to  a  beggar;  and 


56 


POMPEII 


two  children  play  hide  and  seek  around  a  column.  The  follow- 
ing scene  is  not  easy  to  understand,  but  apparently  has  reference 
to  some  legal  process ;  a  woman  leads  a  little  girl  with  a  small 

tablet  before  her 
breast  into  the  pres- 
ence of  two  seated 
men  who  wear  the 
toga. 

In  the  next  scene. 
(Fig.  17)  four  men 
are  reading  a  notice 
posted  on  a  long 
board,  which  is  fast- 
ened to  the  pedes- 
tals of  three  eques- 
trian statues.  The 
sketchy  character  of 
the  painting  is  espe- 
cially obvious  in  the 
representations  of 
the  horses,  which 
are  nevertheless  life- 
Hke.  It  is  also  inter- 
esting to  note  that 
the  heads  of  the  men 
in  these  scenes  are 
uncovered  ;  in  stormy  weather  pointed  hoods  (shown  in  a  tavern 
scene,  Fig.  234)  were  sometimes  worn.  The  festoons  suggest  a 
trimming  of  the  colonnade  for  some  festal  occasion. 

The  last  scene  is  from  school  life.  A  pupil  is  to  receive 
a  flogging.  He  is  mounted  on  the  back  of  one  of  his  school- 
mates, while  another  holds  him  by  the  legs;  a  slave  is  about 
to  lay  on  the  lash,  and  the  teacher  stands  near  by  with  an  air 
of  composure.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  infer  from  this,  how- 
ever, that  there  was  a  school  in  the  Forum  ;  the  columns  in 
this  scene  are  different  from  those  in  the  others  and  are  further 
apart.  Possibly  a  part  of  the  small  portico  north  of  the  court 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  was  at  one  time  let  to  a  schoolmaster. 


i  li,'.  17.  — Scene  in  the  Forum. 
Citizens  reading  a  public  notice.     Wall  painting 


THE    FORUM  57 

The  most  important  religious  festivals  were  celebrated  in  the 
Forum.  Here  naturally  festal  honors  were  paid  to  the  highest 
of  the  gods  —  the  whole  area  enclosed  by  the  colonnade  was 
the  court  of  his  temple ;  but  we  learn  from  an  inscription,  men- 
tioned below,  that  celebrations  were  held  here  in  honor  of 
Apollo  also,  whose  temple  adjoined  the  Forum,  and  was  at  first 
even  more  closely  connected  with  it  than  in  later  times. 

Vitruvius  informs  us  that  in  Greek  towns  the  market  place, 
agora,  was  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  square  (a  statement  which 
is  not  confirmed  by  modern  excavations),  but  that  in  the  cities 
of  Italy,  on  account  of  the  gladiatorial  combats,  the  Forum 
should  have  an  oblong  shape,  the  breadth  being  two  thirds  of 
the  length.  The  purpose  in  giving  a  lengthened  form  to  the 
Forum,  as  also  to  the  Amphitheatre,  was  no  doubt  to  secure, 
at  the  middle  of  the  sides,  a  greater  number  of  good  seats, 
from  which  a  spectacle  could  be  witnessed.  In  the  Pompeian 
Forum,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  dimensions  given  at  the 
beginning  of  this  chapter,  the  breadth  is  less  than  one  third 
of  the  length.  However,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  gladi- 
atorial exhibitions  were  frequently  held  there  before  the  build- 
ing of  the  Amphitheatre,  which  dates  from  the  earlier  years 
of  the  Roman  colony.  After  this  time  the  Forum  was  still 
used  for  games  and  contests  of  a  less  dangerous  character. 
The  epitaph  of  a  certain  A.  Clodius  Flaccus,  which  is  now  lost, 
but  was  copied  by  a  scholar  in  the  seventeenth  century,  tells  us 
at  length  how  in  his  first,  and  again  in  his  second,  duumvirate 
(he  was  duumvir  for  the  third  time  in  3  B.C.),  in  connection  with 
the  festival  of  Apollo,  he  not  only  gave  gladiatorial  exhibitions 
in  the  Amphitheatre,  but  also  provided  bullfights  and  other 
spectacles,  as  well  as  musical  entertainments  and  pantomimes, 
in  the  Forum. 

Speaking  of  the  Forum  as  a  place  for  gladiatorial  combats, 
Vitruvius  adds  that  the  spaces  between  the  columns  should 
be  wide,  —  that  the  view  of  spectators  might  be  as  little  as 
possible  impeded,  —  and  that  the  upper  story  of  the  colonnade 
should  be  arranged  with  reference  to  the  collection  of  an  admis- 
sion fee.  The  latter  suggestion  is  of  special  interest.  As  we 
know  from  other  sources,  at  public  games  certain  places  were 


58  POMPEII 

reserved  for  the  officials  and  for  the  friends  of  him  who  gave 
the  spectacle ;  others  were  free  to  the  public,  while  for  still 
others  an  admission  fee  was  charged.  If  the  exhibition  was 
held  in  a  market  place,  with  lower  and  upper  colonnades,  the 
former  would  be  open  to  the  people ;  the  latter  in  part  reserved, 
in  part  accessible  on  payment  of  the  price  of  admission. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  on  such  occasions  at 
Pompeii  the  gates  of  the  Forum  itself  were  shut,  so  that  admis- 
sion even  to  the  free  space  could  be  regulated  ;  perhaps  they 
were  in  earlier  times  when,  as  at  Rome,  slaves  were  forbidden 
to  witness  the  games.  However,  Cicero  speaks  of  this  time- 
honored  regulation  as  in  his  day  already  a  thing  of  the  past ; 
and  so  in  Roman  Pompeii  the  gates  of  the  Forum  may  have 
remained  open  even  on  the  days  of  the  games.  Their  most 
important  use  was  probably  in  connection  with  the  voting. 

The  Forum  had  a  part  also  in  spectacles  which  were  not 
presented  there.  We  are  safe  in  assuming  that,  at  least  in  the 
earlier  times,  whenever  a  gladiatorial  combat  was  given  in  the 
Amphitheatre,  or  a  play  in  the  Theatre,  the  city  officials,  includ- 
ing especially  the  official  providing  the  entertainment,  formed 
in  procession  with  their  retinue  and  proceeded  in  festal  attire 
to  the  place  of  amusement.  These  processions  could  scarcely 
have  formed  anywhere  else  than  in  the  Forum,  and  thence  they 
must  have  started  out. 

The  fact  that  the  Forum  was  not  accessible  for  vehicles  sug- 
gests a  significant  point  of  difference  between  the  festal  proces- 
sions of  the  colony  and  those  of  the  capital.  In  the  latter, 
vehicles  had  a  prominent  place.  Thus  at  Rome  the  official  who 
gave  the  games  in  the  Circus  entered  the  edifice  with  his  retinue 
in  chariots  in  the  imposing  circus  parade,  pompa  circensis,  and  a 
similar  usage  prevailed  in  the  case  of  other  processions  ;  priests, 
too,  and  priestesses  were  on  many  occasions  allowed  to  ride. 
But  even  in  Rome  carriages  were  always  considered  a  matter 
of  luxury ;  and  the  municipal  regulations  promulgated  by 
Caesar  prohibited  the  use  of  vehicles,  except  those  required 
for  religious  and  civic  processions,  on  the  streets  of  the  city 
from  sunrise  till  the  tenth  hour,  that  is,  till  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon. 


THE    FORUM  59 

In  Pompeii,  and  without  doubt  also  in  other  cities  of  Italy 
and  the  provinces,  the  closing  of  the  Forum  to  vehicles  made 
it  necessary  that  religious  and  other  processions  should  proceed 
on  toot.  We  have  no  evidence  of  any  exception  to  this  rule. 
We  ought  perhaps  to  recognize  in  it  one  of  those  devices  by 
means  of  which  Rome  maintained  a  position  of  dignified  supe- 
riority over  the  provincial  towns;  to  her  processions  was  allowed 
an  element  of  display  which  to  theirs  was  denied.  It  was  not 
permitted  to  name  the  two  chief  executive  officers  of  a  munici- 
pality consuls,  though  their  functions,  within  limits,  corresponded 
with  those  of  the  consuls  at  Rome ;  nor  could  the  city  council 
be  called  a  senate,  though  the  Roman  writers  did  not  hesitate 
to  apply  this  term  to  corresponding  bodies  in  states  and  cities 
outside  of  Rome's  jurisdiction.  For  like  reasons,  it  would  seem 
that  on  public  occasions  officials  and  priests  of  a  provincial 
town  were  not  permitted,  as  were  those  in  Rome,  to  ride.  Was 
this  humiliating  restriction  laid  upon  the  Pompeians  when  the 
Roman  colony  came,  or  previously  when  the  city  was  in  name 
the  ally  of  Rome,  but  in  reality  already  subject.'^  The  evidence 
is  almost  conclusive  for  the  latter  alternative  ;  for  the  colonnade 
of  Popidius,  which  as  we  have  seen  was  erected  in  the  period 
of  autonomy,  left  no  entrance  for  vehicles,  though  in  other 
ways  it  added  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  and  convenience  of 
the  Forum  as  a  place  for  civic  and  religious  celebrations. 

No  record  of  events  has  survived  to  help  us  form  a  picture 
of  the  Forum  as  the  seat  of  deliberative  and  judicial  functions, 
the  centre  of  the  city's  political  life ;  yet  stirring  scenes  present 
themselves  to  the  imagination  as  we  recall  the  critical  periods 
in  the  history  of  the  city. 

In  the  Forum,  about  400  b.c,  the  valiant  Samnite  moun- 
taineers, having  taken  the  city  by  storm,  assembled  and  estab- 
lished their  civic  organization ;  here,  in  later  times,  without 
doubt  amid  conflicts  similar  to  those  at  Rome,  the  poUty  was 
put  to  the  test  and  underwent  transformation.  Fierce  enough 
the  strifes  may  have  been  during  the  Samnite  wars,  and  again 
in  the  time  of  Hannibal,  —  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  —  when 
the  aristocrats  who  favored  Rome  contended  with  the  national 
party  for  the  mastery.     Here,  on  the  platform  in  front  of  the 


6o  POMPEII 

temple  of  Jupiter,  the  leaders  of  the  national  party  stood  in 
90  B.C.,  and  with  flaming  words  roused  the  people  to  revolt,  to 
join  the  movement  which,  starting  in  Asculum,  had  spread  like 
wildfire  over  Southern  Italy. 

Then  ten  years  of  bloody  war,  —  siege,  campaigns,  surrender, 
—  and  again  the  scene  changes.  Roman  soldiers  stand  thick 
in  serried  ranks  upon  the  area.  They  are  the  veterans  of 
Sulla.  An  officer  bearing  a  civil  commission,  the  nephew  of 
the  Dictator,  appears  before  them.  Standing  in  front  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  he  makes  a  proclamation  regarding  the  found- 
ing and  administration  of  the  colony.  The  citizens  crowd  back 
timidly  into  the  colonnade.  Many  of  the  best  of  the  Pompeiana 
have  fallen  in  battle ;  of  the  rest,  a  part  at  least  will  be  dispos- 
sessed of  house  and  home  to  make  room  for  the  intruders, 
whose  arrogance  they  will  be  compelled  submissively  to  endure. 

This  is  the  last  tragic  act  in  the  Pompeian  Forum.  After 
this  time,  there  will  be  disputes  regarding  the  rights  of  the  old 
residents  and  the  colonists,  public  questions  of  many  kinds  will 
call  for  settlement ;  the  elections  will  come  each  year,  and  the 
ardent  southern  temperament  may  assert  itself  in  violent 
scenes.  Yet  all  these  disturbances  will  be  only  as  the  ripples 
on  the  surface;  the  depths  will  remain  undisturbed.  The  life 
of  Pompeii  has  become  an  integral  part  of  the  life  of  the  Roman 
world. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

GENERAL    VIEW  OF  THE  BUILDINGS  ABOUT  THE  FORUM 
—  THE   TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER 

The  Forum  was  to  the  ancient  city  what  the  atrium  was  to 
the  early  Italic  house ;  it  was  used  for  every  purpose  for  which 
a  special  place  was  not  provided  elsewhere.  And  as  sleeping 
rooms,  dining  rooms,  and  storerooms  were  grouped  about  the 
atrium  and  opened  into  it,  so  around  the  Forum  lay  the  edifices 
which  served  the  requirements  of  the  public  life,  —  the  most 
important  temples,  the  municipal  buildings,  and  market  houses 
or  exchanges  for  different  branches  of  business. 

Three  temples  adjoined  the  Forum  at  Pompeii.  In  addition, 
there  was  a  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares ;  and  the  temples  of 
Venus  Pompeiana  and  Fortuna  Augusta  were  but  a  short  dis- 
tance away.  These  religious  edifices  are  representative  of  the 
different  periods  in  the  history  of  the  city. 

In  very  early  times  the  Oscans  of  Pompeii  received  from 
the  Greeks  who  had  settled  on  the  coast  the  cult  of  Apollo, 
and  built  for  the  Hellenic  god  a  large,  line  temple  (C,  in  Plan 
II)  adjoining  the   Forum  on  the  west  side. 

Several  centuries  later,  the  divinities  of  the  Capitol — Jupiter, 
Juno,  and  Minerva  —  were  enthroned  in  the  temple  that  on  the 
north  side  towered  above  the  area  (H). 

On  the  east  or  right  side  followed,  in  Roman  times,  the 
edifices  erected  for  the  worship  of  the  emperors.  The  oldest 
is  the  unroofed  building,  with  a  broad,  open  front,  dedicated 
to  the  Lares  of  the  City  and  to  the  Genius  of  Augustus  (L). 
Further  north,  in  the  first  block  at  the  right  beyond  the  Forum, 
is  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  the  goddess  who  guarded 
the  fortunes  of  Augustus,  erected  in  3  B.C.  A  chapel  for  the 
worship  of  Claudius  and   his  family  was  placed  in  the  Macellum 

61 


62  POMPEII 

(K,  5);  this  seems  to  have  sufficed  also  for  the  worship  of 
Nero.  After  Nero's  death  and  after  the  brief  Civil  War, 
a  temple  (M)  was  built  close  to  the  shrine  of  the  Lares  in 
honor  of  Vespasian,  the  restorer  of  peace,  the  new  Augustus. 
This  was  the  last  temple  erected  in  Pompeii ;  it  was  not  en- 
tirely finished  at  the  time  of  the  eruption. 

Three  buildings  at  the  south  end  of  the  Forum  were  used 
for  city  offices  (P-R).  They  were  much  alike,  each  containing 
a  single  large  hall.  They  were  seemingly  built  in  the  early 
years  of  the  Empire,  and  repaired  after  the  earthquake  of  the 
year  63.  There  is  also  a  structure  at  the  southeast  corner, 
south  of  Abbondanza  Street,  which  we  may  identify  as  the 
voting  place,  the  Comitium  (O).  At  the  northwest  corner 
was  apparently  the  city  treasury,  built  in  the  latest  years  of 
Pompeii,  perhaps  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  structure  of  the 
same  kind  (F). 

At  a  comparatively  early  period  the  area  was  found  to  be 
too  small  for  the  increasing  volume  of  business;  and  the 
demand  for  roofed  space  made  itself  felt.  In  the  second 
century  B.C.  the  large  and  splendid  Basilica  (B),  serving  the 
double  purpose  of  a  court  and  an  exchange,  was  built  at  the 
southwe.Jt  corner. 

Diagonally  opposite,  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  a  provision 
market,  the  Macellum  (K),  was  constructed;  this  also  at  an 
early  date.  It  was  entirely  rebuilt  in  the  time  of  the  Empire, 
perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  Previous  to  this  rebuilding, 
the  priestess  Eumachia  had  erected  an  exchange  for  the  fullers 
on  the  same  side  of  the  Forum,  further  south  (N). 

On  the  west  side,  from  pre-Roman  times,  stood  a  small 
colonnade  in  two  stories,  with  its  rear  against  the  rear  of 
the  colonnade  on  the  north  side  of  the  court  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo ;  only  the  first  story,  of  the  Doric  order,  has  been  pre- 
served. Probably  this  structure  and  the  small  open  space  in 
front  were  at  first  used  as  a  market;  later,  in  the  imperial 
period,  shops  (D')  were  built  upon  the  open  space,  and  the 
colonnade  was  made  over  into  closed  rooms,  the  purpose  of 
which,  except  in  the  case  of  one,  is  unknown  (6,  7,  7).  In  the 
last  years  of  the  city,  a  large  market  building  (D)  was  erected 


THE    TEMPLE    OF   JUPITER 


63 


between  this   small  place  and   the   Forum.     It  was  connected 
both  with  the  city  treasury  and  with  a  latrina. 


The  temple  of  Jupiter  dominates  the  Forum,  and  more  than 
any  other  structure  gives  it  character.  As  we  have  seen,  its 
orientation  accords  with  that  of  the  colonnade  of  Popidius.  It 
probably  dates  from  the  pre-Roman  period,  the  columns  being 
of  tufa  covered  with  white  stucco.  The  earthquake  of  the  year 
6^  left  the  temple  in  ruins,  and  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  the 
work  of  rebuilding  had  not  yet  commenced.  In  the  meantime, 
it  was  used  as  a  workshop  for  stonecutters.  The  journal  of 
the  excavations  reports  the  finding  here  of  the  torso  of  a  colos- 
sal statue  out  of  which  a  smaller  statue  was  being  carved.  A 
place  for  the  worship  of  the  divinities  of  the  temple  must  tem- 
porarily have  been  provided  elsewhere. 

The  temple  stands  on  a  podium  10  Roman  feet  high,  and 
including  the  steps,  125  Roman  feet  long  (Fig.  18).  Very 
nearly  a  half  of  the  whole  length  is  given 
to  the  cella ;  of  the  other  half,  a  little 
more  than  two  thirds  is  occupied  by  the  por- 
tico, leaving  about  a  third  (20  Roman  feet) 
for  the  steps.  The  pediment  was  sustained  by 
six  Corinthian  columns  about  28  feet  high. 
This  arrangement  —  a  deep  portico  in  front 
of  the  cella  —  is  Etruscan,  though  the  canon 
of  Vitruvius,  that  in  Etruscan  temples  the 
depth  of  the  portico  should  equal  that  of  the 
cella,  is  violated.  The  high  podium  also, 
with  steps  in  front,  is  characteristic  of  Etrus- 
can, or  at  least  of  early  Italic  religious  architecture.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  architectural  forms  of  the  superstructure  are 
Greek,  and  these  in  turn  have  had  their  influence  upon  the 
plan ;  the  intercolumniations  are  not  wide,  as  in  the  Tuscan 
style  with  its  wooden  architrave,  but  narrower,  as  in  the  Greek 
orders.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  temples  such  as  this,  in  which 
Greek  and  Etruscan  elements  are  united,  at  the  end  of  his 
directions  for  the  building  of  temples  ;  they  are  a  development 
of  Roman  architecture. 


Vn    V  \  n    '^i 


Fig.  18.  — Plan  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter. 

1.  Speaker's  platform. 

2.  Portico. 

3.  Cella. 


64 


POMPEII 


The  arrangement  of  the  steps  is  peculiar.  Above  is  a  series 
of  long  steps  reaching  nearly  across  the  front  (Fig.  19);  below 
are  two  narrow  flights  near  the  sides,  and  between  them  is  the 
projecting  front  of  the  podium,  used  as  a  tribune,  which  has 
already  been  mentioned  (p.  48). 

That  an  altar  stood  at  the  middle  of  this  platform  is  proved 
by  a  relief  with  a  representation  of  the  north  side  of  the 
Forum,  found  on  the  base  of  a  chapel  of  the  Lares  in  the 
house  of  the  wealthy  Pompeian,  L.  Caecilius  Jucundus.  At 
the  left  we  see  the  arch  near  the  facade  and  a  strip  of  wall 
connecting  it  with  the  temple ;  next  a  corner  of  the  platform 
with    an    equestrian    statue ;    then    a    flight    of    steps,   and    the 


t.-!„,, 


>f    JuiMt. 


front  of  the  platform  with  an  altar  at  the  middle ;  finally  the 
other  flight  of  steps  and  another  equestrian  statue  in  a  posi- 
tion corresponding  with  that  of  the  first.  The  columns  shown 
in  the  relief  do  not  agree  in  number  or  style  with  those  of  the 
facade  of  the  temple,  but  such  inaccuracies  are  common  in 
ancient  representations  of  buildings,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  temple  of  Jupiter  is  represented ;  the  relief  has,  in 
fact,  been  used  in  making  our  restoration  of  the  arch  at  the  left 
(Fig.  13). 

Both  the  portico  and  the  cella  no  doubt  had  a  coffered  ceil- 
ing. Just  in  front  of  the  doorway,  which  was  fifteen  Roman 
feet  wide,  are  the  large  stones  with  holes  for  the  pivots  on 
which  the  massive  double  doors  swung  (indicated  in  Fig.  18);  the 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   JUPITER 


65 


doors  here  were  not  placed  in  the  doorway,  but  in  front  of  it, 
and  were  besides  somewhat  larger,  so  that  the  effect  was  ren- 
dered more  imposing  when  they  were  shut. 

The  ornamentation  of  the  cella  was  especially  rich.  A  row  of 
Ionic  columns,  about  fifteen  feet  high,  stood  in  front  of  each  of 
the  longer  sides ;  the  entablature  above  them  probably  served  as 
a  base  for  a  similar  row  of  Corinthian  columns,  the  entablature 
of  which  in  turn  supported  the  ceiling.  On  the  intermediate 
entablature,  between  the  columns  of  the  upper  series,  statues  and 
votive  offerings  were  doubtless  placed.  The  floor  about  the  sides 
was  covered  with  white  mosaic,  of  which  scanty  remains  have 
been  found ;  the  marble  pavement 
of  the  centre  (inside  of  the  dotted  line, 
Fig.  18)  has  wholly  disappeared. 

A  section  of  the  wall  decoration,  in 
the  second  Pompeian  style,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  20.  We  notice  here  the  char- 
acteristic elements — imitation  of  mar- 
ble veneering,  with  large  red  central 
panels  and  a  cornice  above.  The  base 
with  its  simple  dividing  lines  upon  a 
black  ground  was  painted  over  in  the 
third  style;  originally  it  must  have 
been  more  suggestive  of  real  construc- 
tion, with  a  narrow  painted  border 
along  the  upper  edge. 

Against  the  rear  wall  of  the  cella 
stands  a  large  pedestal,  three  times 
as  long  as  it  is  broad.  It  was  origi- 
nally divided  by  four  pilasters  —  two 
at  the  corners  and  two  on  the  front 
between  them  —  into  three  parts. 
Later  the  pilasters  and  the  entabla- 
ture over  them  were  removed,  and  the 
whole  was  covered  with  marble  veneering.  Inside  were  three 
small  rooms,  entered  by  separate  doors  from  the  cella.  The 
pedestal  was  thus  built  for  three  images ;  three  divinities  were 
worshipped  here,  and  in  the  little  chambers  underneath  were 


Fig.  20.  —  Section  of  the  wal 
decoration  in  the  cella  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter. 


66  POMPEII 

perhaps  kept  the  trappings  with  which  on  festal  occasions  the 
images  were  decked. 

A  head  of  Jupiter,  of  which  we  shall  speak  later,  was  found 
in  the  cella,  as  was  also  an  inscription  of  the  year  37  a.d.,  con- 
taining a  dedication  to  Jupiter  Optimus  Maximus,  the  ruling  deity 
of  the  Capitol  at  Rome.  It  is  thus  proved  beyond  question  that 
the  Capitoline  Jupiter  was  worshipped  here ;  and  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  ascertain  what  other  divinities  shared  with  him  the 
honors  of  the  temple. 

As  the  Roman  colonies  strove  in  all  things  to  be  Rome  in 
miniature,  each  thought  it  necessary  to  have  a  Capitolium — a 
temple  for  the  worship  of  the  gods  of  the  Roman  Capitol,  Jupi- 
ter, Juno,  and  Minerva;  and  this  naturally  became  the  most 
important  temple  in  the  city.  That  the  worship  of  the  three 
divinities  was  established  at  Pompeii  is  evident  from  the  discov- 
ery of  three  images  representing  them,  in  the  Httle  temple  con- 
jecturally  assigned  to  Zeus  Milichius.  These  are  poor  images 
of  terra  cotta,  and  the  temple  itself  was  altogether  unworthy  to 
be  a  place  of  worship  for  the  great  gods  that  shaped  the  desti- 
nies of  Rome.  We  are  warranted  in  the  conclusion  that  the 
temple  of  Zeus  Milichius  was  used  temporarily  for  the  worship 
of  the  three  divinities  of  the  large  temple  till  the  latter  could  be 
rebuilt ;  and  that  Juno  and  Minerva  stood  on  the  great  pedestal 
beside  the  king  of  the  gods. 

It  seems  strange  that  the  Pompeians  should  have  erected  a 
temple  to  the  gods  of  the  Capitol  in  the  pre-Roman  period.  It 
must  be  remembered,  how^ever,  that  the  worship  of  the  three 
divinities  was  by  no  means  Hmited  to  Rome  and  her  colonies. 
The  Etruscans,  as  Servius  informs  us  in  his  commentary  on 
Virgil,  thought  that  a  city  was  not  properly  founded  unless  it 
contained  sanctuaries  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  Vitruvius, 
also,  in  his  directions  for  laying  out  a  city,  makes  the  general 
statement  that  the  most  prominent  site  should  be  set  aside  for  the 
temples  of  the  same  divinities.  If  we  consider  further  that 
the  opposition  of  the  Italians  to  Rome  found  expression  only  in 
the  Social  War,  and  that  previously  they  had  looked  upon  the 
attainment  of  Roman  citizenship  as  the  highest  object  of  ambi- 
tion, the  gradual  adoption  of  Roman  customs  at  Pompeii  and 


THE   TEMPLK    OF   JUPITER  67 

the  erection  of  a  temple  to  the  Capitohne  divinities  are  seen 
to  be  less  remarkable.  The  building  of  such  a  temple  was  a 
natural  expression  of  political  aspirations ;  it  was  in  complete 
harmony  with  the  use  of  Latin  in  the  inscription  of  Popidius 
(p.  50). 

There  is,  however,  another  possibility  that  may  be  stated. 
The  remodelling  of  the  Forum  was  certainly  commenced  in  the 
pre-Roman  period ;  but  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  work  was 
interrupted  by  the  breaking  out  of  the  Social  War  and  that  the 
colonists  completed  it,  dedicating  the  temple  to  the  gods  of  the 
Capitol.  The  use  of  several  brick-shaped  blocks  of  stone,  — 
such  blocks  are  not  found  in  other  buildings  of  the  pre-Roman 
time,  —  the  lack  of  any  trace  of  the  wall  decoration  of  the  first 
style,  the  form  of  the  egg-and-dart  moulding  on  the  capitals  of 
the  Ionic  columns  in  the  cella,  and  the  correspondence  of  cer- 
tain dimensions  with  the  Roman  scale  of  measurements  may  be 
alleged  in  favor  of  this  hypothesis.  The  evidence  at  present 
does  not  warrant  a  positive  decision  against  it. 

The  fact  that  we  have  here  a  Capitolium  may  explain  the 
special  prominence  of  the  altar  in  front,  which  might  just  as 
well  have  been  placed  in  the  area  of  the  Forum  at  the  foot  of 
the  steps.  In  Rome  the  Capitol  lay  upon  a  summit  of  a  hill ; 
perhaps  the  aim  in  this  case  was  to  place  not  only  the  temple 
but  also  the  altar  upon  an  elevation  so  that  here,  as  there,  the 
priest  should  go  up  to  offer  sacrifice. 

The  podium  of  the  temple  contains  vaulted  rooms  which  can 
be  entered  from  the  Forum  through  a  narrow  door  on  the  east 
side.  Their  use  is  unknown.  We  are  reminded  of  the  temple 
of  Saturn  in  the  Forum  at  Rome,  the  podium  of  which  served 
as  a  treasury,  acrat'iuni.  The  vaults,  favissac,  may  have  been 
used  as  a  place  of  safe  keeping  for  treasure,  or  for  furniture  of 
the  temple,  or  for  discarded  votive  offerings. 

The  beautiful  head  of  Jupiter  found  in  the  cella  deserves  more 
than  a  passing  mention.  In  order  to  appreciate  its  character 
we  may  view  it  in  contrast  with  the  Otricoli  Zeus,  with  which 
it  is  closely  related.  In  both  heads  we  feel  the  lack  of  that 
majestic  simplicity,  that  ineffable  and  godlike  calm,  which  rested 


68 


POMPEII 


on  the  features  of  the  Zeus  of  Phidias.  Here  man  has  much 
more  obviously  made  God  in  his  own  image  ;  the  face  shows 
less  of  the  ideal,  with  more  of  human  energy  and  passion. 

It  is  not  for  us  to  decide  whether  the  Otricoli  mask  is  from  the 
school  of  Praxiteles,  or  shows  more  of  the  influence  of  Lysippus ; 
it  is  sufficient  here  to  notice  that  the  type  was  developed  in  the 

second    half    of    the 

fourth  century  B.C., 
the  century  after  Phid- 
ias. The  similarity 
between  these  two  ex- 
amples of  the  type 
is  apparent  at  first 
glance.  The  shape  of 
the  two  heads  is,  in 
general,  the  same,  and 
there  is  the  same  pro- 
fusion of  hair  and 
beard,  symbolic  of 
power ;  but  the  differ- 
ences in  detail  are 
striking. 

In  the  Otricoli  Zeus 
the  peculiar  shape  of 
the  forehead — promi- 
nent in  the  middle  up 
to  the  roots  of  the  hair 
and  retreating  at  the 
sides  —  seems  to  sug- 
gest, not  so  much  the 
power  of  a  world-encompassing  and  lofty  intellect,  as  absorp- 
tion in  great,  unfathomable  thoughts.  In  the  lines  of  the 
massive  face  irresistible  force  of  will  is  revealed,  and  the  capa- 
bility of  fierce  passion  lurks  beneath  the  projecting  lower  part  of 
the  forehead  and  uneven  eyebrows,  threatening  like  a  thunder- 
cloud. But  for  the  moment  all  is  deep  repose,  and  the  lids  seem 
partly  closed  over  eyes  that  look  downwards,  as  if  not  concerned 
with  seeing.     The  sculptor  has  conceived  of  Zeus  as  the  occult 


Fig.  21.  —  Bust  of  Zeus  from  Otricoli,  now  in  the  Vatican 
Museum.  After  Tafel  130  of  the  Brunn-Bruckmann 
Denkmaeler. 


THE   TEMPLE    OE    fUPITER 


69 


power  of  nature,  alike  the  origin  and  law  of  all  things,  or  as  the 
personification  of  the  heavens  veiled  by  impenetrable  mists. 

Great  force  of  will  is  seen  also  in  the  face  of  the  Pompeian 
god ;  but  it  is  will  dominated  by  alert  and  all-embracing  mind. 
The  forehead  expands  in  a  broad  arch  ;  the  eyes,  wide  open, 
look  out  with  full  vision  under  sharply  cut  brows.  Here  we 
have  no  secret  brood- 
ing; a  powerful  yet 
clearly  defined  and 
comprehensible  per- 
sonality is  stamped 
upon  features  carved 
in  bold,  free  lines. 
And  this  personality 
is  not  lost  in  mystical 
self-contemplation  ; 
the  god  is  following 
with  closest  attention 
the  course  of  events 
in  some  far  distant 
place,  affairs  that  in 
the  next  moment  mav 
require  his  interven- 
tion ;  excitement  and 
expectancy  are  seen 
in  the  raised  upper 
lip.  The  ideal  of  this 
artist  was  the  wise 
and  powerful  king, 
whose  watchful  and  all-protecting  eye  sees  to  the  furthest  limits 
of  his  kingdom.  Surely  this  variation  of  the  Otricoli  type  must 
have  been  conceived  in  a  monarchical  period,  the  period  when 
the  Greek  world  was  ruled  by  the  successors  of  Alexander. 

The  Pompeian  god  is  more  a  sovereign ;  the  Zeus  of  Otricoli 
is  more  poetic,  more  divine. 


Fig.  22.- 


Bust  of  Jupiter,  found  at  Pompeii. 
Naples  Museum. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE  BASILICA 

The  Basilica,  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Forum,  was  the 
most  magnificent  and  architecturally  the  most  interesting  build- 
ing at  Pompeii.  Its  construction  and  decoration  point  to  the 
pre-Roman  time  ;  and  there  is  also  an  inscription  scratched  on 
the  stucco  of  the  wall,  dating  from  almost  the  beginning  of  the 
Roman  colony  :  C.  Pnniidius  Dipilus  Jicic  fnit  a.  d.  v.  noiias 
Octobreis  M.  Lcpid.  Q.  Catnl.  cos.,  — '  C.  Pumidius  Dipilus  was 
here  on  the  fifth  day  before  the  nones  of  October  in  the  consul- 
ship of  Marcus  Lepidus  and  Quintus  Catulus,'  that  is  October 
3,  78  B.C. 

The  purpose  of  the  building  is  clearly  indicated  not  only  by 
its  plan  and  the  details  of  its  arrangement  but  also  by  the  word 
Bassilica  scratched  a  number  of  times  by  idlers  on  the  stucco  of 
the  outer  wall  at  the  right  of  the  south  entrance.  This  sure 
identification  lends  to  the  edifice  a  special  significance  ;  it  is  with- 
out doubt  the  oldest  example  that  we  have  of  an  important 
architectural  type  whose  origin  is  lost  in  obscurity,  but  of  which 
the  derivative  forms  may  still  be  recognized  in  the  architecture  of 
to-day.  What  the  temple  developed  by  the  Greeks  was  to  pagan 
antiquity,  that  the  basilica  became  to  the  Christian  Church  —  a 
type  dominating  a  system  of  religious  architecture.  Pagan 
worship  was  individual,  —  a  narrow  chamber  sufficed  for  the 
image  of  the  god  and  the  requirements  of  religious  service;  but 
Christian  worship  was  social,  and  its  functions  demanded  a 
larger  room,  in  which  a  congregation  could  be  assembled. 
The  religious  architecture  of  the  Church  therefore  broke  with 
the  religious  architecture  of  pagan  antiquity,  and  turned  for  its 
model  to  the  basilica. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  basilica  begins  with  the 
erection  of  the  Basilica  Porcia  in   Rome  by  Cato  the  Elder,  in 

70 


THE    BASILICA 


71 


184  B.C.  ;  other  basilicas  followed,  and  in  Caesar's  day  a  number 
stood  about  the  Forum.  Regarding  its  development  prior  to 
the  time  of  Cato  only  conjectures  can  be  offered.  The  name 
basilica  {basilikc  stoa,  'the  royal  hall')  points  to  a  Greek 
origin  ;  we  should  naturally  look  for  the  prototype  of  the  Roman 
as  well  as  the  Pompeian  structure  in  the  capitals  of  the  Alexan- 
drian period  and  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Italy.  But  no  ruin, 
no  reference  in  literature  comes  to  our  aid.  The  supposition 
that  the  King's  Hall  {basileios  stoa)  in  Athens,  the  official  resi- 
dence of  the  King  Archon,  was  the  prototype  of  all  basilicas, 
has  little  to  support  it ;  our  information  in  regard  to  the  form  of 
this  building  is  quite  inadequate,  and  the  name  alone  warrants 
no  positive  conclusion.  It  is  more  probable  that  both  the  name 
and  the  architectural  type  came  from  the  '  royal  hall '  of  one  of 
the  successors  of  Alexander. 

A  basilica  was  a  spacious  hall  which  served  as  an  extension 
of  a  market  place,  and  was  itself  in  a  certain  sense  a  covered 
market.  It  was  not  limited  to  a  specific  purpose  ;  in  general, 
whatever  took  place  on  the  market  square  might  take  place  in 
the  basilica,  the  roof  of  which  afforded  protection  against  the 
weather.  It  was  chiefly  devoted,  however,  to  business  transac- 
tions and  to  the  administration  of  justice.  The  form  is  known 
partly  from  the  remains  of  the  basilicas  in  Rome  —  Basilica 
Julia,  Basilica  Ulpia,  the  Basilica  of  Constantine  —  and  in 
Africa,  but  more  fully  from  the  treatise  of  Vitruvius  and  the 
description  of  a  basilica  which  he  himself  erected  at  Fano. 

Accordmg  to  these  sources 
the  plan  of  a  typical  basilica 
is  essentially  that  of  the  build- 
ing before  us  (Fig.  23).  An 
oblong  space  is  divided  by  col- 
umns into  a  broad  central  hall 
and  a  corridor  which  runs 
around  the  four  sides.  The 
height  of  the  columns,  in  the 
typical  basilica,  is  equal  to  the  width  of  the  corridor,  which  is 
covered  by  a  flat  roof ;  the  inner  edge  of  this  roof  is  carried 
by  the  entablature   above    the   columns.      The  main  room  is 


Fig.  23.  —  Plan  of  the  Basilica. 

a.   Entrance  conrt.         i.    Corridor. 
2.    M.iin  room.  3.    Tribunal. 

4.    Rooms  at  the  ends  of  the  tribunal. 


V»» 


72  POMPEII 

higher  than  the  corridor.  Above  the  entablature  is  a  low  wall 
on  which  there  is  a  second  row  of  columns  ;  these  carry  the 
main  roof  and  form  a  clerestory,  the  light  being  admitted 
through  the  intercolumniations. 

The  main  hall  and  the  corridor  were  devoted  to  trade;  the 
dealers  perhaps  occupied  the  former,  while  in  the  latter  the 
throng  of  purchasers  and  idlers  moved  freely  about.  The  place 
set  aside  for  the  administration  of  justice,  the  tribunal,  was 
ordinarily  an  apse  projecting  from  the  rear  end.  In  our  Basil- 
ica, however,  —  and  in  some  others  as  well,  —  it  was  a  small 
oblong  elevated  room  back  of  the  central  hall,  toward  which  it 
opened  in  its  whole  length. 

This  ideal  plan  would  answer  very  well  for  that  of  the  early 
Christian  basilicas,  excepting  in  one  respect ;  instead  of  a  cor- 
ridor on  all  four  sides  they  have  only  aisles  parallel  with  the 
nave,  an  arrangement  which  had  already  been  adopted  in  some 
basilicas  designed  for  markets.  The  Christian  basilicas  would 
give  us  a  still  truer  idea  of  the  arrangement  and  lighting  of  the 
pagan  prototype  if  in  most  cases  a  part  of  the  numerous  win- 
dows had  not  been  walled  up,  thus  producing  a  dimness  in  keep- 
ing with  a  religious  but  not  a  secular  edifice. 

In  pagan  structures  the  ideal  plan  was  by  no  means  strictly 
followed.  Vitruvius  himself  at  Fano,  and  the  architects  of 
other  basilicas  the  remains  of  which  have  been  discovered,  did 
not  hesitate  to  depart  from  it.  So  the  Basilica  at  Pompeii,  as 
we  shall  see,  presents  a  modification  of  the  general  plan  in  an 
important  particular,  the  admission  of  light ;  and  this  deviation 
was  carried  out  with  finer  artistic  feeling  than  was  displayed  by 
Vitruvius  in  his  building. 

Our  Basilica  is  undoubtedly  of  later  date  than  the  Basilica 
Porcia,  but  the  Pompeians,  who  at  the  time  when  it  was  built 
were  pupils  of  the  Greeks  in  matters  of  art,  found  their  model 
not  in  Rome  but  in  a  Greek  city,  perhaps  Naples. 

Five  entrances,  separated  by  tufa  pillars,  lead  from  the  colon- 
nade of  the  Forum  into  the  east  end  of  the  basilica.  First  comes 
a  narrow  entrance  court  (a),  extending  across  the  entire  build- 
ing and  open  to  the  sky.  On  the  walls,  as  also  on  the  outside 
of  the   building,   are  remains  of    a  simple    stucco    decoration ; 


THE    BASILICA 


73 


below,  a  yellow  base  with  a  projecting  red  border  along  the 
upper  edge ;  above,  a  plain  white  surface.  At  the  left  outside 
the  entrance  court  is  a  cistern  for  rain  water  collected  from  the 
roof ;  the  stairway  close  by  (shown  on  the  plan)  had  nothing  to 
do  with  the  Basilica,  but  was  connected  with  the  upper  gallery 
of  the  colonnade  about  the  Forum. 

Mounting  four  steps  of  basalt  we  pass  from  the  narrow  court 
into  the  building.  The  five  entrances  here  are  separated  by 
four  columns.     Those  next  to  the  two  sides  on  the  rio:ht  and  on 


Fig.  24.  —  \'ie\v  of  the  Basilica,  looking  toward  the  tribunal. 


the  left  were  closed  by  a  wall  in  which  was  a  wide  doorway  ;  the 
three  at  the  middle  were  left  as  open  intercolumniations.  The 
enclosed  space  before  us  measures  180^  English  feet  (200  Oscan 
feet)  in  length,  78|  feet  in  breadth.  Twenty-eight  massive  brick 
columns,  4  Oscan  feet  in  diameter,  separate  the  great  cen- 
tral hall  from  the  broad  corridor  running  about  it ;  only  the 
lower  part  of  the  columns,  built  of  small  bricks  evidently  made 
specially  for  this  purpose,  is  preserved  (Fig.  24).  Attached 
half-columns,  with  a  diameter  a  little  more  than  three  fourths 
that  of  the  others,  project  from  the  walls ;  the  wall  decoration, 
which  imitates  in  stucco  a  veneering  of  colored  marbles,  is  of 
the    first    style   (p.   41).     The    columns    of    the    entrance   and 


74  POMFKII 

those  at  the  rear  have  the  same  diameter  as  the  half-col- 
umns ;  part  of  the  Ionic  capitals  belonging  to  them  have 
been  found,  but  the  capitals  of  the  large  columns  have  wholly- 
disappeared. 

There  are  only  scanty  remains  of  the  floor,  which  consisted 
of  bits  of  brick  and  tile  mixed  with  fine  mortar  and  pounded 
down  (opiis  Signiniim);  it  extended  in  a  single  level  over  the 
whole  enclosed  space,  and  from  this  level  our  estimates  of 
height  are  reckoned.  On  three  sides  of  the  main  hall  near 
the  base  of  the  columns  under  the  floor  is  a  square  water 
channel,  indicated  on  our  plan ;  eight  rectangular  basins  lie 
along  its  course,  but  the  purpose  of  it  is  not  clear.  The  tribu- 
nal projects  from  the  rear  wall,  its  floor  being  six  Oscan  feet 
above  that  of  the  rest  of  the  building. 

The  large  columns  about  the  main  hall,  with  a  diameter 
of  more  than  3|  feet,  must  have  been  at  least  32  or  33 
feet  high ;  the  attached  half-columns  with  the  columns  at 
the  entrance  and  at  the  rear,  including  the  Ionic  capitals, 
were  probably  not  more  than  20  feet  high.  But  assuming  that 
the  roof  of  the  corridor  was  flat,  the  walls  must  have  been 
as  high  as  the  entablature  of  the  large  columns,  and  so  must 
have  extended  above  the  entablature  of  the  half-columns ; 
considerable  portions  of  this  upper  division  of  the  walls 
remain. 

Along  the  walls  on  the  ground  are  to  be  seen  a  number  of 
capitals,  fragments  of  shafts  and  bases  belonging  to  a  series  of 
smaller  columns  with  a  diameter  of  1.74  feet,  all  found  in  the 
course  of  the  excavations.  They  are  of  tufa,  coated  with  white 
stucco ;  they  can  belong  only  here,  and  by  the  study  of  their 
forms — columns,  half-columns,  and  peculiarly  shaped  three- 
quarter-columns —  the  upper  division  of  the  walls  can  be  re- 
stored with  some  degree  of  certainty.  Not  to  go  into  technical 
details,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  side  walls  a  section  of  wall  con- 
taining a  window  alternated  with  a  short  series  of  columns  in 
which  the  columns,  for  the  sake  of  greater  solidity,  were  set 
twice  as  close  as  the  half-columns  in  the  lower  division  of  the 
wall,  the  intercolumniations  being  left  entirely  open  (Fig.  25); 
over  the  entrances  at  the  front  the  wall  was  continuous  but  was 


THE    BASILICA 


75 


divided  into  sections  by  half-columns  corresponding  with  the 
columns  below,  a  window  being  placed  between  every  two  half- 
columns  in  order  to  conceal  the  difference  in  width  between  the 
sections  of  wall  at  the  front  and  those  at  the  sides.  The  arrange- 
ment was  similar  at  the  rear,  on  either  side  of  the  tribunal,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  section  (P'ig.  27). 

With  this  restoration  of  the  outer  walls  completed  we  are  able 
to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  main  hall.  Whether 
or  not  the  rafters  could  be  seen  from  below  is  uncertain,  but  the 
probability  is  that,  as  assumed  in  our  restoration  (Fig.  26),  they 


Fig.  25.  —  Exterior  of  tlie  Basilica,  restored. 


were  hidden  by  a  coffered  ceiling.  The  simple  and  beautiful 
interior  abounded  in  fine  spatial  effects.  The  corridor  and  main 
room  were  almost  as  high  as  the  main  room  was  wide,  that 
is  between  35  and  40  feet.  The  light  streaming  in  through 
the  openings  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  walls  was  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  hall ;  we  may  assume  that  when 
the  sun  became  too  hot  on  the  south  side  it  could  be  shut  out 
by  curtains. 

In  our  Basilica,  then,  we  notice  a  wide  divergence  from  the 
ideal  or  normal  plan.  Instead  of  a  clerestory  above  the  main 
hall  a  proportionally  greater  height  is  given  to  the  corridor. 
The  normal  height  of  a  basilica  corridor  is  represented  by  the 


76 


POMPEII 


lower  division  of  the  walls  with  the  attached  half-columns  and 
their  entablature ;  this,  however,  is  here  treated  simply  as  a 
lower  member,  and  upon  it,  rather  than  upon  the  entablature 
of  the  columns  about  the  main  hall,  was  placed  an  upper 
division  of  wall  admitting  light  and  air  through  intercolumnia- 
tions  and  windows. 

The  tribunal  at  the  rear  is  the  most  prominent  and  architectu- 
rally the  most  effective  portion  of  the  building.  The  base  is 
treated  in  a  bold,  simple  manner ;  upon  it,  at  the  front,  stands  a 


Fig.  2'j.  —  Iiitcnui  ol  the  Liasilica,  looking  toward  the  tiibimal,  rcbtored. 


row  of  columns  the  lower  portions  of  which  show  traces  of 
latticework.  The  decoration  of  the  walls,  like  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  interior,  imitates  a  veneering  of  colored  marbles.  The 
shape  and  comparatively  narrow  dimensions  of  the  elevated 
room  indicate  that  we  have  here  a  tribunal  in  the  strict  sense,  a 
raised  platform  for  the  judge  and  his  assistants  ;  in  the  basili- 
cas provided  with  apses  the  latter  were  large  enough  to  make 
room  both  for  the  judicial  body  and  for  the  litigants.  Here  the 
litigants  stood  on  the  floor  in  front  of  the  tribunal,  and  when 
court  was  in  session  the  general  public  must  have  been  excluded 
from  this  part  of  the  corridor.     The  arrangement  in  this  respect 


THE    BASILICA 


77 


Btj    I    i    i    I    I    I    I    I    I    I 1 1 

I-'ig.  27. — -Front  of  the  tribunal  —  plan  and  elevation. 


was  far  from  convenient,  but  seemingly  convenience  was  sacri- 
ficed to  aesthetic  considerations  ;  the  builders  wished  to  treat  the 
projecting  front  of  the  tribunal  as  an  ornament  to  the  building. 

Under  the  tribunal  was  a  vaulted  chamber  half  below  the 
level  of  the  ground  ;  two  round  holes,  indicated  on  the  plan, 
opened  into  it  from  above.  It  could  hardly  have  been  designed 
as  a  place  for  the  confinement  of  prisoners  ;  escape  would  have 
been  easy  by  means  of  two  windows  in  the  rear,  especially 
when  help  was  ren- 
dered from  the  out- 
side. More  likely  it 
was  used,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  business 
of  the  court,  as  a 
storeroom,  in  which 
writing  materials  and 
the  like,  or  even  doc- 
uments, might  be 
kept ;  they  could  ea- 
sily have  been  passed 

up  through  the  holes  when  needed.  The  second  story  of  the 
tribunal  was  not  as  completely  open  to  the  main  hall  as  the 
first.  Its  front,  the  remains  of  which  have  for  the  most  part 
been  recovered,  was  divided  off  by  half-columns  corresponding 
in  number  and  arrangement  wdth  the  columns  of  the  first  story, 
but  each  half-column  was  flanked  by  narrow  pilasters,  while  a 
parapet  of  moderate  height  occupied  the  intervening  spaces. 
It  was  built  apparently  with  a  view  to  architectural  effect  rather 
than  practical  use  (Fig.  27). 

At  the  right  and  the  left  of  the  tribunal  are  places  for  stair- 
ways. Each  of  these  contains  a  landing  on  the  same  level  with 
the  floor  of  the  tribunal,  from  which  it  was  cut  off  by  a  door ; 
the  steps  connecting  with  these  landings,  being  of  wood,  have 
disappeared.  In  both  stair  rooms,  however,  flights  of  stone 
steps  lead  down  to  the  vaulted  chamber  below,  so  that  this 
could  not  have  been  accessible  if  there  were  wooden  steps  on 
both  sides  connecting  the  tribunal  with  the  floor  of  the  Basilica. 
Probably  on  one  side  the  wooden  steps  led  from  the  tribunal 


78  POMPEII 

down  to  the  floor,  but  on  the  other  ascended  from  the  corre- 
sponding landing  to  the  second  story,  thus  leaving  the  stairway 
to  the  lower  room  unobstructed  on  that  side.  At  some  later 
time  the  door  at  the  left  between  the  tribunal  and  the  landing 
was  walled  up,  perhaps  because  the  gallery  was  no  longer  used ; 
if  still  in  use  it  could  to  all  appearances  have  been  reached  only 
by  a  ladder. 

The  two  open  rooms  at  the  rear  on  either  side  of  the  tribunal 
agree  in  their  decoration  with  the  entrance  court  except  that 
the  base  with  its  border  is  higher,  and  the  white  surface  above 
is  moulded  in  stucco  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  slabs  of 
white  marble.  They  were  no  higher  than  the  first  division  of 
the  wall ;  the  windows  seen  in  Fig.  27  above  the  broad  entrances 
opened  into  the  outer  air.  Perhaps  they  were  used  as  waiting- 
rooms  for  litigants. 

Opposite  the  north  entrance  between  two  columns  stood 
a  curb  like  those  over  the  mouths  of  cisterns  ;  only  the  founda- 
tion stone  with  a  circular  opening  is  preserved.  The  remains 
of  a  lead  pipe,  which  brought  the  water  to  it,  show  that  it  must 
have  been  connected  with  an  aqueduct.  At  the  further  end  of 
the  main  hall  was  an  equestrian  statue  of  which  no  trace  has 
been  found. 

The  arrangement  of  the  roof  is  a  problem  of  much  difficulty. 
Without  wearying  the  reader  by  presenting  various  possibilities, 
it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purposes  to  suggest  the  explanation 
which,  on  the  whole,  has  the  most  in  its  favor.  As  assumed  in 
our  restoration,  the  roof  of  the  main  hall  was  carried  by  the 
entablature  of  the  twenty-eight  large  columns.  Thus  in  general 
the  arrangement  corresponded  fairly  well  with  that  of  other 
basilicas  except  that,  oving  to  the  lack  of  a  clerestory,  the  roof 
of  the  main  hall  was  not  much  if  any  higher  than  that  of  the 
corridor.  From  the  flat  roof  of  the  corridor,  at  least  on  the 
south  side,  the  rain  water  flowed  into  the  cistern  near  the  front 
part  of  the  building. 

The  five  entrances  opening  from  the  Forum  into  the  narrow 
court  could  be  closed  by  latticed  doors.  Similar  doors  hung 
also  on  the  wooden  jambs  of  the  north  and  south  entrances. 
With    such    doors    a   complete    safeguarding    could    not    have 


THE    BASILICA 


79 


been  contemplated.  Tradespeople  using  the  Basilica  must 
either  have  removed  their  wares  at  the  close  of  business  hours 
or  have  made  the  stalls  sufficiently  secure  for  protection.  We 
can  hardly  doubt  that  ordinarily  a  night  watchman  was  on 
duty  about  the  building. 


CHAPTER   X 

THE   TEMPLE   OF  APOLLO 

In  some  respects  the  study  of  the  large  temple  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Forum  is  especially  satisfactory.  The  building  had 
been  completely  restored  after  the  earthquake  of  63,  and  was 
in  good  order  at  the  time  of  its  destruction.  Though  ancient 
excavators  removed  many  objects  of  value,  including  the  statue 

of  the  divinity  of  the  temple, 
much  was  left  undisturbed,  as 
the  interesting  series  of  stat- 
ues in  the  court ;  in  addition,  a 
number  of  inscriptions  have 
been  recovered.  On  the  whole, 
more  complete  information  is 
at  hand  regarding  this  sanc- 
tuary than  in  reference  to  any 
other  in  Pompeii. 

The  identification  of  this  as 
the  temple  of  Apollo  is  certain. 


Fig.  28.  —  Corner  of  mosaic  floor,  cella  of 
the  temple  of  Apollo. 


The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  corner  of  the  floor  laid 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  cella  (3  on  the  plan) ;  the  parts 
along  the  inner  walls  were  of  white  mosaic.  This  floor  was 
composed  of  small,  lozenge-shaped  pieces  of  green  and  white 
marble  and  slate  ;  of  the  two  narrow  stripes  between  the  lozenge 
pattern  and  the  bright  mosaic  fret  along  the  border  one  is  of 
slate,  the  other  of  red  marble.  In  the  slate  stripe  was  an  in- 
scription. The  letters  were  outlined  by  means  of  small  holes 
filled  with  metal,  every  seven  holes  forming  a  vertical  line, 
every  four  a  horizontal.  The  inscription,  which  was  in  Oscan, 
stated  that  the  quaestor  0[ppius]  Camp[anius],  by  order  of  the 
council  and  with  money  belonging  to  Apollo,  had  caused  some- 

80 


THK   TEMPLE   OF   APOLLO 


n  I 


1 ''* 

. 

I  *  V  *  I      * 

•  3'      •     i     * 

•  2      j    1     I 

•       5 

04    : 

thing  to  be  made  ;  ^  what  this  was  cannot  be  determined,  as  the 
important  word  is  missing,  but  apparently  it  was  the  floor.  In 
the  cella,  moreover,  stands  a  block  of  tufa,  having  the  shape  of 
half  an  egg ;  this  is  the  Omphalos,  the  familiar  symbol  of 
Apollo.  In  the  court  on  the  first  pilaster  at  the  right  as  you 
enter  a  tripod  is  painted,  too  large  for  mere  decoration,  and 
explicable  only  as  a  symbol  of  the  god.  Lastly,  in  the  de- 
sign of  the  stucco  ornamentation  with 
which  the  entablature  of  the  peristyle  was 
adorned  after  the  earthquake,  the  principal 
figures  are  griffins.  The  griffin  was  sacred 
to  Apollo,  and  though  it  was  often  used  as 
a  purely  decorative  theme,  in  this  case  a 
reference  to  the  divinity  of  the  temple  is 
unmistakable  (Fig.  31). 

As  previously  stated  (p.  49),  the  deviation 
of  the  axis  of  this  building  from  that  of  the 
Forum  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  followed  the  direction  of  a  street  which 
bordered  it  on  the  east  side  before  the  col- 
onnade of  Popidius  was  built ;  this  is  there- 
fore an  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
temple.  The  style  of  architecture,  however, 
is  in  no  essential  particular  different  from 
that  of  the  colonnade  and  of  other  buildings 
of  the  Tufa  Period,  and  gives  no  indication  of  great  age.  The 
most  probable  explanation  is  that  the  temple  was  rebuilt  in  the 
Tufa  Period  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  structure,  the  orientation  of 
which  was  preserved.  The  difference  in  direction  is  concealed 
by  the  increasing  thickness,  from  south  to  north,  of  the  pillars 
between  the  Forum  and  the  court  of  the  temple.  The  spaces 
between  the  pillars  were  originally  left  open.  Later,  at  what 
time  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  they  were  all  walled  up  except 
the  three  opposite  the  side  of  the  temple  ;  since  the  temple  was 
excavated  these  also  have  been  closed.  In  comparison  with 
the  entrances   from    the    Forum,   at  first  ten   in    number,   the 

1  O  •  KAMP[aniis    .    .    .    kva]issTUR  •  KOMBEN.Ni[eis     tanginud]    •  Apelluneis 
ElTir[vp.d  .   .  .  opsjANNU    •    .\.\MAN[aff]En. 


ipl^tioi] 


Fig.  29.  —  Plan  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Podium. 

3.  Cella. 

4.  .A.ltar. 

5.  Sundial. 

6.  Sacristan's  room. 


-l*'^1 


Yn 


-   /o  /-- 


82  POMPEII 

one  on  the  south  side,  opening  on  the  street  leading  from 
the  Porta  Marina,  must  have  been  considered  unimportant. 
Otherwise  pains  would  have  been  taken  to  give  to  the  colon- 
nade on  that  side  an  even  number  of  columns,  so  that  the  door 
of  the  temple  should  face  an  intercolumniation ;  as  it  is  the 
number  is  uneven  and  the  entrance  to  the  court  had  to  be  put  a 
little  to  one  side  that  it  might  not  open  upon  a  column. 

The  court  is  of  oblong  shape.  The  continuous  colonnade 
about  the  sides,  the  peristyle,  was  originally  in  two  stories.  At 
the  rear  of  the  peristyle  on  the  north  side  stood  the  small  colon- 
nade of  the  Doric  order  already  mentioned  (p.  62);  one  of  the 
rooms  into  which  in  later  times  this  was  divided  (6)  was  con- 
nected with  the  court  of  the  temple,  and  was  probably  occupied 
by  the  sacristan  {acdituus). 

The  temple  stood  upon  a  high  podium,  in  front  of  which  is  a 
broad  flight  of  steps.  The  small  cella  was  evidently  intended 
for  but  one  statue.  The  columns  at  the  sides  of  the  deep  por- 
tico, which  in  other  respects  follows  the  Etruscan  plan  (p.  63), 
are  continued  in  a  colonnade  which  is  carried  completely  around 
the  cella. 

In  Plate  II  and  Y\g.  30  we  give  a  view  of  the  ruins  as  they 
are  to-day ;  in  Fig.  32  a  view  of  the  temple  as  it  appeared 
before  the  earthquake  of  63.  The  height  and  diameter  of  the 
Corinthian  columns  seen  in  the  restoration  can  be  calculated  with 
approximate  correctness ;  of  the  entablature  and  parts  above 
nothing  has  been  found  except  a  large  waterspout  of  terra  cotta 
in  the  form  of  a  lion's  head. 

The  colonnade  about  the  court  was  built  of  tufa,  and  coated 
with  white  stucco.  It  presents  an  odd  mixture  of  styles,  of 
which  other  examples  also  are  found  at  Pompeii ;  a  Doric  en- 
tablature with  triglyphs  was  placed  upon  Ionic  columns  having 
the  four-sided  capital  known  as  Roman  Ionic.  Here,  as  in  the 
earlier  colonnade  about  the  Forum,  the  stone  blocks  of  the 
entablature  were  set  upon  beams ;  and  in  the  blocks  now  in 
place  we  may  see  the  sockets  made  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
joists  of  the  second  story  floor.  Evidently  with  the  purpose  of 
supporting  this  second  story,  which  was  probably  of  the  Co- 
rinthian order,  the  Ionic  columns  below  were  made  relatively 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   APOLLO 


83 


short.  No  remains  of  an  upper  gallery,  however,  have  been 
found ;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  when  the  colonnade  was 
restored,  after  the  earthquake,  the  second  story  was  omitted. 
The  upper  floor  could  be  reached  from  the  second  story  of 
the  small  colonnade  north  of  the  court,  which  was  accessible 
by  means  of  a  stairway  leading  from  the  Forum. 

When  the  restoration  of  the  temple  and  its  colonnade  was 


Fig.  30. —  \'ie\v  of  ihc  temple  of  Apollo,  looking  toward  Vesuvius. 
At  the  left  of  the  steps,  the  column  on  which  was  the  sundial ;  in  front  of  the  steps,  the  altar. 


undertaken,  the  feeling  for  the  pure  and  simple  forms  of  the 
Greek  architecture  was  no  longer  present ;  the  prevailing  taste 
demanded  gay  and  fantastic  designs,  with  the  use  of  brilliant 
colors.  The  Pompeians  improved  the  opportunity  afforded  by 
the  rebuilding  to  make  the  temple  and  its  colonnade  conform 
to  the  taste  of  the  times. 

First  the  projecting  portions  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
capitals  were  cut  off ;  then  shaft  and  capital  alike  were  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  stucco.  New  capitals  were  moulded  in 
the  stucco,  of  a  shape  in  general  resembling  the  Corinthian, 
and  were  painted  in  red,  blue,  and  yellow;  the  lower  part  of 


84 


POMPEII 


the  shaft,  unfluted,  was  also  painted  yellow.  The  entablature, 
at  least  in  the  case  of  the  colonnade,  was  in  like  manner  covered 
with  stucco  and  ornamented  with  reliefs  in  the  same  colors. 
All  this  gaudy  stucco  has  now  fallen  off;  and  our  illustration 
(Fig.  31)  is  taken  from  Mazois,  who  made  the  drawing  soon 
after  the  court  was  excavated.  The  later  capitals  and  stucco 
ornamentation  of  the  temple  itself  had  wholly  disappeared 
before  the  excavations  were  made. 

The  wall  decoration  of  both  the  temple  and  the  colonnade 


Fig.  31.  —  Section  of  the  entablature  of  the  temple  of  Apollo,  showing  the  original  form 
and  the  restoration  after  the  earthquake. 


was  originally  in  the  first  style  ;  a  remnant  of  it  may  still  be 
seen  in  the  cella.  After  63  it  was  modernized.  The  walls  of 
the  temple  both  within  and  without  were  done  over  in  stucco, 
so  as  to  resemble  ashlar  work  of  white  marble  ;  apparently  it 
was  the  intention  to  give  the  appearance  of  real  marble.  The 
walls  of  the  colonnade  were  painted  in  the  latest  Pompeian  style, 
in  bright  colors,  on  a  white  ground.  The  decorative  designs,  to 
judge  from  the  remains  and  from  sketches,  were  not  of  special 
interest.  There  was  a  series  of  pictures  representing  scenes 
from  the  Trojan  War,  — the  quarrel  between  Achilles  and  Aga- 
memnon, the  embassy  of  the  Greeks  to  Achilles,  the  battle 
between  Achilles  and  Hector  (the  subject  of  this,  however,  is 
doubtful),   the   dragging   of   Hector's  body  about  the  walls  of 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   APOLLO  85 

Troy,  Priam  making  entreaty  for  the  body  of  Hector,  and  tlie 
rape  of  the  Palladium, — but  they  have  long  since  perished  and 
are  known  only  from  unsatisfactory  drawings. 

Long  before  this  modernizing  of  the  temple  the  west  side  of 
the  court  had  undergone  a  complete  transformation.  The  pecul- 
iar bend  in  the  street  at  the  northwest  corner  (shown  in  Plan 
II),  the  diagonal  line  with  which  the  small  colonnade  north  of 
the  court  ends,  and  the  narrow,  quite  inaccessible  space  between 
the  west  wall  of  the  court  and  the  houses  lying  near  it,  cannot 
easily  be  explained  as  a  part  of  an  original  plan,  but  must  rather 
be  the  result  of  later  changes.  The  north  and  south  street 
which  now  ends  abruptly  at  the  northwest  corner  must  originally 
have  been  continued  through  the  west  colonnade,  the  ends  of 
which  were  left  open  ;  this  colonnade  was  then  a  public  thor- 
oughfare, on  which  the  windows  of  houses  opened,  and  perhaps 
also  doors. 

We  learn  from  an  inscription  that  about  the  year  10  B.C.  the 
city  purchased  from  the  residents  whose  property  adjoined  the 
colonnade,  for  the  sum  of  3000  sesterces  (about  $155),  the  right 
to  build  a  wall  in  front  of  their  windows  ;  this  explains  how  the 
narrow  space  between  the  wall  on  the  north  side  of  the  court 
and  the  houses  came  to  be  cut  off.  The  inscription  reads  :  J/. 
Holcojiius  Rufiis  d\iiuiii\  7'[//']  i\jiri\  d\icundo\  tt'rt\_i2ij)i'\,  C. 
Egnatius  Postunius  d.  v.  i.  d.  itcr\jLni\  ex  d\_fciinontijn~\  d[_e- 
creto~\  ins  hiniininn  opstnicndorinn  HS  oo  00  00  redenicmnt,  parie- 
temque  privatum  Col\_oniae~\  Ven[^eriae~\  Cor\_nc/iae~\  usque  ad 
tegnlas  faciioiduni  eoeraruut,  —  'Marcus  Holconius  Rufus,  duum- 
vir with  judiciary  authority  for  the  third  time,  and  Gains  Egna- 
tius Postumus,  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority  for  the  second 
time,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  city  council  purchased 
for  3000  sesterces  the  right  to  shut  off  light  (from  adjoining 
buildings)  and  caused  to  be  constructed  a  wall  belonging  to  the 
colony  of  Pompeii  to  the  height  of  the  tiles,'  that  is,  as  high  as 
the  roofs  of  the  houses. 

The  wall  referred  to  was  no  doubt  that  on  the  west  side  of  the 
court  of  the  temple ;  when  it  was  built  the  ends  of  the  colonnade 
on  that  side  must  have  been  closed,  so  that  this  ceased  to 
be  a  thoroughfare.     Marcus    Holconius  was   duumvir  for  the 


86 


POMPEII 


fourth  time  in  the  year  3-2  B.C. ;  as  an  interval  of  at  least  five 
years  must  intervene  between  two  duumvirates,  his  third  duum- 
virate must  have  been  not  far  from  10  b.c. 

The  pedestal  in  the  cella,  on  which  the  statue  of  Apollo 
stood,  still  remains,  but  no  trace  of  the  statue  itself  has  been 
found. 

Near  the  foot  of  the  steps  in  front  is  a  large  altar  of  trav- 
ertine, having  the  same  inscription  on  both  sides  :  M.  Porchis 
M.f.,  L.  Sextilius  L.f.,  Cn.  Cornelius  Cn.  f.,  A.  Corncliits  A.f. 
IIII  vir\r\  d\e'\  d\eciirioimin\  s\^eiite7itia\  f\_aciiindm}i\  loca- 
i'\_uut~\,  —  'Marcus  Porcius  the  son  of  Marcus,  Lucius  Sextilius 


Fig.  32.  —  Temple  of  Apollo,  restored. 

the  son  of  Lucius,  Gnaeus  Cornelius  the  son  of  Gnaeus,  and 
Aulus  Cornelius  the  son  of  Aulus,  the  Board  of  Four,  in 
accordance  with  the  vote  of  the  city  council  let  the  contract 
(for  building  this  altar).'  The  names  of  the  four  officials  who 
erected  the  altar,  the  two  duumvirs  and  two  aediles  (for  the 
title  see  p.  12),  appear  without  surnames;  this  points  to  a  rela- 
tively early  time,  at  the  latest  the  age  of  Augustus. 

At  the  left  of  the  steps  is  an  Ionic  column  with  the  inscrip- 
tion:  L.  Sepiinins  L.f.  Sandilianns,  Jll.  Herenniiis  A.  f.  Epi- 
diamis  duovir\i'\  i\^nri~\  d\_icundo'\  d'\_e'\  s\jia\  p\_ecitnia'\ 
f\_aciundnm~\  c\jirarunt'\,  —  'Lucius  Sepunius  Sandilianus  the 
son  of  Lucius,  and  Marcus  Herennius  Epidianus  the  son  of 
Aulus,   duumvirs  with  judiciary  authority,   caused  (this)  to  be 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   APOLLO  87 

erected  at  their  own  expense.'  Old  sketches,  made  soon  after 
the  court  was  excavated,  represent  the  column  with  a  sundial 
on  the  top.  The  probability  that  a  sundial  belonging  to  the 
column  was  actually  found  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  these 
same  men  placed  one  on  the  circular  bench  in  the  Forum  Tri- 
angulare.  Here,  in  front  of  the  temple  of  the  Sun-god,  such  a 
dial  would  certainly  have  been  in  place.  At  the  right  of  the 
steps  are  some  blocks  of  lava  containing  holes,  in  which,  undoubt- 
edly, the  supports  of  a  votive  offering  were  once  set,  but  the 
holes  give  no  clew  to  the  size  or  character  of  the  offering. 

Other  divinities  besides  Apollo  were  honored  in  this  sanctuary, 
which  in  the  earher  time  was  evidently  the  most  important  in 
the  city  ;  statues  and  altars  for  their  worship  were  placed  in 
the  court.  The  pedestals  of  the  statues  still  remain  where  they 
were  originally  placed,  on  the  step  in  front  of  the  stylobate  of 
the  colonnade ;  the  statues  themselves,  with  one  exception, 
have  been  taken  to  Naples.  There  were  in  all  six  of  them, 
grouped  in  three  related  pairs.  In  front  of  the  third  column 
at  the  left  of  the  entrance,  stood  Venus,  at  the  right  was  a 
hermaphrodite  —  both  marble  figures  of  about  one  half  life  size. 
They  belong  to  the  pre-Roman  period  and  were  originally  of 
good  workmanship,  but  even  in  antiquity  they  had  been  repeat- 
edly restored  and  worked  over.  As  a  work  of  art,  the  her- 
maphrodite is  the  more  important. 

An  altar  stands  before  the  statue  of  Venus.  In  pre-Roman 
times  this  may  have  been  the  only  shrine  in  the  city  at  which 
worship  was  offered  to  Herentas  ;  for  by  that  name  the  god- 
dess of  love  was  known  in  the  native  speech.  Venus  as  god- 
dess of  the  Roman  colony  (Fig.  4),  was  represented  in  an 
altogether  different  guise,  and  had  a  special  place  of  worship 
elsewhere  (see  pp.  124-129). 

Though  the  statues  of  Venus  and  of  the  hermaphrodite  here 
form  a  pair,  both  artistically  and  in  respect  to  arrangement,  the 
latter  belongs  not  to  the  cycle  of  Venus  but  to  that  of  Bacchus  ; 
and  in  order  to  make  this  the  more  evident,  the  ears  of  a  satyr 
were  given  to  the  figure.  We  may,  perhaps,  infer  that  the  god 
of  wine  also  was  worshipped  in  this  sanctuary.  In  the  sacris- 
tan's room  (6  on  the  plan)  we  find  a  painting  in  which  Bacchus 


88  POMPEII 

is  represented  as  leaning  upon  Silenus  who  is  playing  the  lyre, 
meanwhile  allowing  the  panther  to  drink  out  of  his  cup.  This 
seems  strange  enough  in  a  temple  of  Apollo  ;  still  it  cannot  be 
considered  conclusive  evidence  that  Bacchus  actually  received 
worship  here.  Without  doubt  the  Wine-god  was  honored  in 
Pompeii,  the  region  about  which  was  rich  in  vines.  He  appears 
countless  times  in  wall  paintings,  but  no  shrine  dedicated  to  him 
has  yet  been  found. 

On  the  right  side  of  the  court,  in  front  of  the  third  column, 
was  a  statue  of  Apollo  ;  on  the  left  directly  opposite  stood 
Artemis,  both  life  size  figures  in  bronze.  An  altar  stood 
before  the  statue  of  Artemis ;  the  altar  of  Apollo  was  before 
the  temple.  Both  statues  were  armed  with  the  bow,  and  it  is 
evident  that  they  were  not  designed  to  stand  facing  each  other, 
but  side  by  side,  or  one  behind  the  other ;  both  may  originally 
have  belonged  to  a  Niobe  group.  As  works  of  art,  they  are 
not  of  high  merit.  We  recognize  a  certain  elegance  and  nicety 
of  finish,  but  these  qualities  cannot  compensate  for  superficiality 
in  the  treatment  of  the  figure,  want  of  expression  in  the  faces, 
and  lack  of  energy  in  the  movement.  We  have  no  other  evi- 
dence of  the  worship  of  Artemis  in  Pompeii. 

Further  on,  in  front  of  the  fifth  column  on  either  side,  was 
a  marble  herm.  That  on  the  right  is  still  in  place  and  is 
seen  in  Plate  II.  It  is  of  fine  workmanship,  and  clearly 
belongs  to  the  pre-Roman  period  ;  it  represents  Hermes,  or  Mer- 
cury. The  god  appears  as  a  youth  standing  with  his  mantle 
drawn  over  the  back  of  his  head ;  the  face,  with  a  placid, 
serious,  mild  expression,  is  inclined  a  little  forward.  In  this 
form  Mercury  was  honored  as  the  presiding  divinity  of  the 
palaestra,  the  god  of  gymnastic  exercises  ;  we  shall  find  him  in 
the  same  guise  later  in  the  court  of  the  Stabian  Baths  (p.  200). 
How  this  type  of  Hermes  came  to  be  chosen  for  the  place  of 
honor  in  athletic  courts  is  by  no  means  clear ;  it  was  certainl}' 
designed  originally  to  represent  him  as  a  god  of  death,  the 
Psychopompus,  conductor  of  souls  to  the  Underworld.  The 
worship  of  Mercury  here  as  a  god  of  gymnastic  exercises  would 
not  be  in  harmony  with  the  surroundings ;  we  should  rather 
believe  that  the  Pompeians,  having  placed  him  in  such  close 


1 

I 


THE  TEMPLE   OF  APOLLO  89 

relation  with  Apollo,  god  of  the  death-dealing  shaft,  and  the  earth 
goddess,  Maia,  associated  more  serious  ideas  with  his  image. 

The  herm  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  court  probably  repre- 
sented Maia.  No  trace  of  it  has  been  found  ;  the  female  herm 
in  the  Naples  Museum  formerly  assigned  to  this  place  is  now 
known  to  have  been  brought  from  Rome.  In  Greek  mythology, 
the  mother  of  Hermes  was  Maia,  the  daughter  of  Atlas ;  and 
this  relationship,  by  a  common  confusion,  was  transferred  to  the 
Italian  Maia,  who  was  originally  goddess  of  the  spring,  and  gave 
her  name  to  the  month  of  May.  The  assignment  of  the  herm 
opposite  Mercury  to  Maia  is  based  upon  a  number  of  inscrip- 
tions which  establish  the  existence  of  a  cult  of  Mercury  and 
Maia  in  Pompeii.  From  the  same  source  we  learn  that  with 
the  worship  of  these  two  that  of  Augustus  was  intimately  asso- 
ciated ;  there  are  few  better  illustrations  of  the  development  of 
emperor  worship  in  the  Early  Empire. 

These  inscriptions  were  found  in  different  places,  none  of 
them  in  their  original  location.  They  are  dedications  once 
attached  to  votive  offerings,  of  which  one  was  set  up  each  year 
by  a  college  of  priests,  consisting  of  slaves  and  freedmen,  under 
the  general  direction  of  the  city  authorities.  The  official  title 
of  this  college  at  first,  certainly  to  14  B.C.,  was  Ministri  Mcrcurii 
Maine,  '  Servants  of  Mercury  and  Maia '  ;  the  word  inijiistcr 
indicates  a  low  order  of  priesthood.  The  worship  of  the  em- 
peror was  then  added,  and  the  priests  were  called  '  Servants  of 
Augustus,  Mercury,  and  Maia.'  Still  later,  at  least  as  early  as 
2  B.C.,  the  names  of  the  two  divinities  were  dropped,  and  the 
priests  were  designated  simply  as  'Servants  of  Augustus.' 

The  extant  inscriptions  of  this  series  come  down  to  the  year 
40  A.D.  As  an  example,  we  give  that  of  2  b.c,  in  which  the 
ministri  Augiisti  first  appear  :  N.  luniis  Pliylax,  N.  Popidins 
Mosc/iJis,  T.  Mesciniiis  AmpJiio,  Primus  Arrunti  M.  s.,  inin. 
Aug.,  ex  el.  d.  inssu  M.  Holconii  Rufi  IV,  A.  Clodi  Flacci  III 
d.  ?'.  /.  <•/.,  P.  Caeseti  Postumi,  N.  Tintiri  Rufi  d.  v.  v.  a.  s.  p.  p. 
Ivip.  Caesarc  XIII,  M.  Plaiitio  Siht'ono  cos,  —  '  Numenus  Veius 
Phylax,  Numerius  Popidius  Moschus,  Titus  Mescinius  Amphio 
and  Primus  the  slave  of  Marcus  Arruntius,  Servants  of  Augustus 
-'^--t  this  up),  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  city  council,  on 


90  POMPEII 

the  order  of  Marcus  Holconius  Rufus,  duumvir  with  judiciary 
authority  for  the  fourth  time,  Aulus  Clodius  Flaccus,  duumvir 
for  the  third  time,  and  of  Publius  Caesetius  Postumus  and 
Numerius  Tintirius  Rufus,  duumvirs  in  charge  of  the  streets, 
buildings,  and  public  religious  festivals  (the  official  title  of  the 
aediles,  p.  13)  in  the  thirteenth  consulship  of  the  Emperor 
Caesar  (Augustus),  the  other  consul  being  Marcus  Plautius 
Silvanus.' 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  the  worship  of  Augustus 
came  to  have  a  place  in  this  sanctuary.  The  divinities  here 
honored  stood  in  close  relation  to  him.  Apollo  was  his  tutelary 
divinity,  to  whom  he  thought  that  he  owed  the  victory  at  Actium, 
and  in  whose  honor  he  built  the  magnificent  temple  on  the 
Palatine.  Venus,  moreover,  was  revered  as  the  ancestress  of 
the  Julian  family ;  and  finally  Mercury  was  said  to  be  incarnate 
in  Augustus  himself. 

This  last  conception  found  expression  in  one  of  the  finest  of 
the  odes  of  Horace,  written  in  28  b.c.  Fearful  portents,  the 
poet  says,  are  threatening  Rome;  Jupiter  with  flaming  right 
hand  has  even  struck  his  own  temple  on  the  Capitoline.  To 
what  god  shall  we  turn  for  help  — ■  to  Apollo,  to  Venus,  or  to 
Mars  .'*  or  rather  to  thee,  winged  god,  Maia's  son,  that  even  now 
doest  walk  the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  youth,  the  avenger  of 
Caesar :  — 

Sive  mutata  iuvenem  figura 

Ales  in  terris  imitaris  almae 

Filius  Maiae,  patiens  vocari 
Caesaris  ultor. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  evidence  of  the  worship  of 
Augustus  as  Mercury  has  come  to  light  also  in  Egypt.  In  an 
inscription  from  Denderah  we  find  Hclmis  Kaisar,  '  beloved  of 
Ptah  and  of  Isis';  Helmis  Kaisar  is  apparently  'Hermes 
Caesar,'  and  in  Egyptian  inscriptions  Augustus  is  elsewhere 
referred  to  as  'the  beloved  of  Ptah  and  of  Isis.' 


I 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE   BUILDINGS    AT   THE   NORTHWEST   CORNER    OF   THE 
FORUM,   AND   THE   TABLE  OF  STANDARD  MEASURES 


The  large  building  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Forum 
(Fig.  33,  I,  2,  3)  was  erected  after  the  earthquake  of  the  year 
63.  We  do  not  know  whether  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  it 
had  yet  been  roofed ;  the  inside  at  least  was  in  an  unfinished 
state. 

This  building  is  divided  into  three  parts,  one  of  which,  that 
furthe.st  north,  at  the  corner,  contains  both  lower  and  upper 
rooms.  Below,  at  the  level  of  the  Forum, 
are  two  dark  vaulted  chambers,  one  at  the 
rear  of  the  other.  The  front  chamber  is 
dimly  lighted  by  a  slit  in  the  ceiling  and 
was  entered  from  the  Forum  by  a  nar- 
row door ;  there  are  traces  of  a  strong  iron 
grating  in  the  doorway.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed, not  without  probability,  that  these 
were  the  vaults  of  the  city  treasury,  the 
aerarium  ;  if  they  had  been  built  for 
prison  cells,  they  would  naturally  have 
had  separate  entrances. 

Above  these  chambers  are  two  rooms 
which  open  not  on  the  Forum,  but  on  the 
street  that  runs  past  them  on  the  north 
(i,  i).  They  resemble  shops  and  would 
be  classed  as  such  without  further  question  but  for  the  fact  that 
the  level  of  the  floor  is  nearly  five  feet  above  the  sidewalk,  so 
that  they  could  have  been  reached  only  by  means  of  steps.  If 
the  identification  of  the  chambers  below  as  the  vaults  of  the 
city  treasury  is  correct,  these  rooms  must  have  been  occupied 

91 


r 


J 


Fig.  33-  —  Plan  of  the  buildings 
at  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
Forum. 

1.  City  treasury. 

2.  Latrina. 

3.  4.    Market  buildings. 


Vl> 


'0-x>\ 


92  POMPEII 

by  the  treasury  officials,  who  could  here  transact  business  with 
the  public  without  admitting  the  latter  to  their  offices. 

The  middle  room  (2)  was  a  public  closet,  with  a  small  ante- 
room. As  the  doors  to  and  from  the  anteroom  were  not  placed 
opposite  each  other,  the  interior  was  not  visible  from  the  street. 
The  room  was  not  entirely  finished ;  nevertheless,  we  can  see 
the  water  channel  running  along  three  sides,  and  above  it  the 
stones  on  which  the  woodwork  was  to  be  placed ;  the  inlet 
pipe  was  in  position,  as  well  as  the  outlet  for  carrying  the  water 
off  into  a  sewer  at  the  rear. 

The  last  of  the  three  parts  of  the  building  (3)  is  by  far  the 
largest.  It  was  a  high  and  spacious  hall,  with  numerous 
entrances  from  the  Forum.  It  was  divided  into  two  rooms  by 
two  short  sections  of  wall  projecting  from  the  sides,  and  was 
evidently  a  market  house,  perhaps  for  vegetables  and  farm 
products. 

The  rooms  formed  by  enclosing  the  small  colonnade  at  the 
rear  of  the  court  of  Apollo  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  62 ). 
At  the  left  of  the  stairway  leading  to  the  second  story  (shown 
in  Plan  II)  is  a  small  room  which  opens  in  its  entire  breadth 
upon  the  Forum  (11).  Close  by  is  a  recess  (10),  also  open 
toward  the  Forum,  in  the  side  of  the  first  of  the  thick  pillars 
which  separate  the  Forum  from  the  court  of  the  temple. 

In  this  recess  stood  the  table  of  standard  measures,  viciisa 
pondi-raria  (Fig.  34),  which  is  now  in  the  Naples  Museum,  un- 
fortunately not  entire  ;  a  part  of  it  has  disappeared.  The  part 
remaining  consists  of  a  large  slab  of  limestone  (a  little  over  8 
feet  long  and  1.8,  or  2  Oscan  feet,  wide),  in  which  are  nine 
bowl-shaped  cavities  with  holes  at  the  bottom  through  which 
the  contents  could  be  drawn  off ;  this  slab  rested  on  two  stone 
supports,  and  similar  supports  above  it  carried  another  slab, 
which  is  now  lost,  with  three  cavities.  The  table  thus  con- 
tained twelve  standards  of  capacity  for  liquid  and  dry  measure, 
but  only  ten  are  shown  in  the  illustration,  as  two  are  too  far 
back. 

It  is  evident  that  the  table  has  come  down  from  the  pre- 
Roman  period.  The  names  of  the  measures  were  originally 
written  in  Oscan,  beside  the  five  largest  cavities,  and  though 


'j'Hi<:  TAinj-:  of  standard  measures 


93 


o> 


A-CL(IDIVS-A-I'FIArrV.SN',\JtCAKre->,'-l'AIU-LLH.N'-('ALEUVJ 

Mv-i-ii-.-\i.\  -Ml  \<  i:/M:gvANiiA.s-f,x-DErDEOR 


the  letters  were  later  erased,  they  are  still  in  part  legible. 
Only  one  word,  however,  can  be  made  out  with  certainty,  beside 
the  next  to  the  smallest  cavity ;  that  is  Kuiniks,  j^lainly  the 
same  as  the  Greek 
CJioinix.  We  nat- 
urally infer  that  in 
the  pre-Roman 
time  the  Pompe- 
ians  used  Greek 
measures. 

In  the  time  of 
Augustus,  about  20 
B.C.,  the  cavities 
were  enlarged  and 
made  to  conform  to 
the  Roman  stand- 
ard, but  the  new 
names  were  not  put 
beside  them.  The 
inscription  on  the 
front  of  the  larger  slab  has  reference  to  these  changes  :  '  Aulus 
Clodius  Flaccus,  the  son  of  Aulus,  and  Numerius  Arcaeus 
Arellianus  Caledus,  the  son  of  Numerius,  duumvirs  with  judi- 
ciary authority,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  city  council, 
caused  the  measures  to  be  made  equal '  to  the  Roman  measures. 

A  similar  adjustment  of  measures  to  the  Roman  standard  is 
indicated  by  the  use  of  the  phrase  victra  exaequarc  on  a 
table  found  at  Minturnae.  The  adoption  of  a  uniform  standard 
was  made  a  subject  of  imperial  regulation  by  Augustus,  who,  by 
this  means,  sought  to  promote  the  unification  of  the  Empire. 
Similar  tables  of  measures  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  Roman  world,  as  at  Selinunto  in  Sicily,  in  the  Greek  islands, 
and  at  Bregenz  on  the  Lake  of  Constance. 

It  is  probable  that  an  official  charged  with  the  oversight  of 
the  measures  had  his  office  in  the  small  room  next  to  the  stair- 
way (11). 


-H- 


.\iiM 


Fig.  34.  —  Table  of  standard  measures,  mensa  ponderaria. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE  MACELLUM 


The  large  building  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Forum  was 
a  provision  market,  of  the  sort  called  Macclluui.  The  name 
Pantheon,  once  applied  to  it,  is  now  abandoned,  and  there  is  no 
longer  the  slightest  doubt  regarding  its  purpose,  which  is  indi- 
cated by  its  general  plan,  the  remains  found  in  the  course  of  the 
excavations,  and  the  paintings  upon  the  walls. 

Such  markets,  where  provisions,  especially  of  the  finer  and 
more  expensive   kinds,   were   sold   and    in  which   a  cook   also 

might  be  secured,  without  doubt 
existed  in  the  Greek  cities  after 
the  time  of  Alexander;  from  the 
Greeks,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
basilica,  the  Romans  took  both 
the  name  and  the  architectural 
type. 

The  first  macellum  in  Rome 
was  built  in  179  B.C.  in  con- 
nection with  the  enlargement 
of  a  fish  market.  In  later 
times,  as  we  learn  from  in- 
scriptions, others  were  con- 
structed in  Rome  and  in  various  cities  of  Italy  and  the  provinces. 
A  macellum  built  by  Nero  is  shown  on  one  of  the  coins  of 
this  emperor.  It  agrees  in  essential  points  with  our  building, 
having  stalls  or  shops  of  more  than  one  story  in  height,  and 
at  the  middle  of  the  court  a  structure  with  a  dome-like  roof. 
The  central  structure,  the  tho/iis,  is  mentioned  by  Varro  as  an 
essential  part  of  a  macellum,  but  its  use  is  known  to  us  only 
from  the   remains  found  at  Pompeii. 

94 


Fig-  35-  —  Plan  of  the  Macellum. 


1.  Portico. 

2.  Colonnade. 

3>3>3-    Rows  of  market  stalls. 
4.    Market  room  for  meat  and 
fish. 


Chapel. 
Banquet  room. 
Tholus. 
Pen. 


THE    MACELLUM 


95 


The  plan  of  our  building  is  simple.  A  court  in  the  shape  of 
a  rectangle,  slightly  longer  than  it  is  broad,  is  surrounded  by  a 
deep  colonnade  on  the  four  sides.  In  the  middle  twelve  bases, 
arranged  so  as  to  form  a  dodecagon,  supported  an  equal  number 
of  columns  on  which  a  roof  rested  ;  underneath  was  a  rectangular 
basin  in  the  pavement,  from  which  a  covered  drain  led  toward 
the  southeast  corner.  Under  this  roof  the  fish  that  had  been 
sold  were  scaled,  the  scales  being  thrown  into  the  basin,  where 


Fig.  36.  —  View  of  the  Macellum. 
In  the  foreground,  part  of  the  stylobate.     In  the  middle  ground,  remains  of  the  tholus. 
In  the  background,  at  the  middle,  walls  and  pedestal  of  the  imperial  chapel ;  at  the 
right,  market  room ;  at  the  left,  banquet  room. 


they  were  found  in  great  quantity.  Behind  the  colonnade  on 
the  south  side,  and  opening  into  it,  was  a  row  of  market  stalls  or 
small  shops  (3  on  the  plan).  Above  these  were  upper  rooms,  in 
front  of  which  was  a  wooden  gallery,  but  there  was  no  stairway, 
and  apparently  the  shopkeeper  who  wished  to  use  his  second 
story  had  to  provide  himself  with  a  ladder. 

There  were  shops  also  on  the  north  side,  but  they  opened 
upon  the  street  bounding  the  Macellum  on  the  north  ;  a  southern 


96  PU.MPKII 

exposure  for  the  shop  fronts  seems  to  have  been  avoided  on 
account  of  the  damage  that  the  heat  in  summer  might  cause  to 
the  stock.  In  the  shops  on  this  street  —  whether  in  those  belong- 
ing to  the  building  or  those  on  the  opposite  side  is  not  stated  — 
the  excavators  found  charred  iigs,  chestnuts,  plums,  grapes,  fruit 
in  glass  vessels,  lentils,  grain,  loaves  of  bread,  and  cakes.  A 
few  shops  behind  the  portico  in  front  faced  toward  the  Forum. 

A  large  market  room  (4)  opened  on  the  colonnade  at  the  south- 
east corner,  the  entrance  being  divided  by  two  columns.  Along 
three  sides  runs  a  counter  for  meat  and  fish,  the  surface  of  which 
slopes  toward  the  middle  of  the  room.  That  fish  were  sold  on  the 
left  side  is  plain  from  the  special  arrangement  made  to  carry  off 
the  water ;  the  floor  behind  the  counter  here  was  raised  and 
sloped  toward  the  rear,  where  a  gutter  connecting  with  it,  and 
passing  across  the  room,  led  under  the  counter  on  the  south  side 
into  the  street. 

In  the  little  room  or  pen  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
colonnade  (8)  remains  of  skeletons  of  sheep  were  found. 
Such  animals,  then,  were  sold  here  alive  ;  instead  of  buying 
the  flesh  of  slaughtered  animals,  many  purchasers  no  doubt 
preferred  to  obtain  a  victim  which  could  be  sacrificed  as  an 
offering  to  the  household  gods  before  it  was  used  for  food. 

The  paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  colonnade  are  among 
the  best  examples  of  the  latest  Pompeian  style.  Above  the  base 
are  large  black  panels  with  a  broad  red  border  ;  between  them, 
in  the  vertical  spaces  separating  the  border  of  one  panel  from 
that  of  the  next,  are  light  and  fantastic  architectural  designs  in 
yellow  on  a  white  ground,  the  parts  designed  to  appear  furthest 
from  the  eye  being  in  green  and  red.  In  this  way  a  rich 
development  of  architectural  forms  is  united,  in  a  consistent 
and  effective  decorative  scheme,  with  large  panels  suitable  for 
paintings. 

Along  the  edges  of  the  black  panels  run  conventional  plant 
designs  ;  in  the  middle  are  paintings  symmetrically  arranged  in 
a  series  in  which  a  pair  of  floating  figures  alternates  with  a 
mythological  scene  enclosed  in  a  painted  frame.  Among  the 
mythological  pictures  are  Ulysses  before  Penelope,  who  does  not 
recognize  him,  lo  guarded  by  Argus,  and  Medea  plotting  the 


THE    MACELLUM 


97 


murder  of  her  children.     The  whole  arrangement  is  in  excellent 
taste,  while  the  execution  is  careful  and  delicate. 

The  treatment  of  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  is  especially  worthy 
of  note.  Generally  in  walls  of  the  fourth  style  the  portion 
above  the  large  panels  is  filled  with  airy  architectural  designs 
upon  a  white  or  at  least  a  bright  ground.  In  this  instance 
the  fantastic  architectural  forms  in  the  spaces  between  the 
black  panels  are  continued  upwards  to  the  ceiling,  and  in  the 
midst  of  each  group  a  standing  figure  is  painted  on  a  blue 
ground  —  a  girl  with  utensils  for  sacrifice,  a  satyr  playing  the 


Fig.  37.  —  The  Macellum,  restored. 

flute  ;  but  the  spaces  above  the  panels  are  completely  filled  with 
representations  of  the  things  exposed  for  sale.  Unfortunately 
only  a  few  of  these  pictures  remain.  One  contains  birds,  some 
alive,  some  killed  and  dressed ;  in  another,  different  kinds  of 
fish  are  seen  ;  and  a  third  presents  a  variety  of  vessels  in  which 
wine  and  other  liquids  could  be  kept.  This  departure  from  the 
usual  style  of  decoration,  strikingly  suggestive,  can  be  explained 
only  as  having  a  direct  reference  to  the  purpose  of  the  building. 
In  two  small  pictures  in  the  black  panels  of  the  north  entrance 
Cupids  took  the  place  of  men.  The  Pompeians  were  very  fond 
of  the  representation  of  Cupids  as  engaged  in  human  occupa- 
tions ;  it  gave  opportunity  for  the  poetic  treatment  of  everyday 


98 


POMPEII 


life,  which  was  thus  carried  over  into  fairyland.  So  in  one 
picture  sprightly,  winged  little  figures  are  celebrating  the  fes- 
tival of  Vesta,  the  tutelary  divinity  of  millers  and  bakers,  who 
on  this  day,  just  as  appears  in  the  painting,  wreathed  with 
garlands  their  mills  and  much  belabored  asses  that  once  a  vear 
were  thus  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  festal  celebrations  of  their 
masters  ;  the  reference  to  trade  in  bread  and  flour  is  obvious. 

In  the  other  picture  the  Gu- 
ilds are  plaiting  and  selling 
wreaths  ;  in  view  of  the  exten- 
sive use  of  garlands  at  banquets 
and  on  gala  days  the  inference 
is  warranted  that  they,  too,  were 
:  old  in  this  market.  In  the  mar- 
ket room  for  meat  and  fish  there 
is  another  interesting  picture 
representing  the  local  divinities 
of  Pompeii — personifications  of 
the  Sarno,  of  the  coast,  and  of 
the  country  round  about,  sug- 
gesting that  here  the  products 
of  the  sea,  the  river,  and  the 
land  might  be  obtained. 

Besides  the  rooms  thus  far 
considered,  which  served  a  prac- 
tical end,  we  find  in  the  Macel- 
lum  two  other  rooms  which  gave 
to  the  building  a  religious  char- 
acter and  placed  it  vmder  the 
special  protection  of  the  imperial  house.  One,  at  the  middle 
of  the  east  end  (5),  is  .a  chapel  consecrated  to  the  worship  of 
the  emperors.  The  floor  is  raised  above  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
building,  and  the  entrance  is  reached  by  five  steps  leading 
up  from  the  rear  of  the  colonnade.  On  a  pedestal  against 
the  rear  wall,  and  in  four  niches  at  the  sides,  were  statues,  of 
which  only  the  two  in  the  niches  at  the  right  have  been  found  ; 
these  represent  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Augustus  (Fig.  38),  and 
Marcellus  (Fig.  39),  the  hope  of  Augustus  and  of  Rome,  whose 


Fig.  38.  —  Statue  of  Octavia,  sister  of  Augus- 
tus, found  in  the  chapel  of  the  Macellum. 
She  is  represented  in  an  attitude  of  wor- 
ship, with  a  Hbation  saucer  in  her  right 
hand,  and  a  box  of  incense  in  her  left. 


THE    MACELLUM  99 

untimely  death  was  lamented  by  Virgil  in  those  touching  verses 
in  the  sixth  book  of  the  Aeneid.  An  arm  with  a  globe  was  also 
found,  doubtless  belonging  to  the  statue  of  an  emperor  that  stood 
on  the  pedestal  at  the  rear.  The  chapel  contains  no  altar ;  sacri- 
fice was  probably  offered  on  a  portable  bronze  coal  pan  in  the 
form  of  a  tripod.  Several  beautiful  examples  of  these  movable 
altars  have  been  found,  and  there  are  numerous  representations 
of  them  in  reliefs  and  in  wall  paintings. 

The  Macellum  in  its  present  form  was  at  the  time  of  the 
eruption  by  no  means  an  ancient  building.  While  finished  and 
no  doubt  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  earthquake  of  63,  it  had 
been  built  not  many  years  before,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  or  of 
Nero,  in  the  place  of  an  older  structure  which  dated  from  the 
pre-Roman  period.  The  earlier  Macellum,  of  which  scanty  but 
indubitable  traces  remain,  could  not  have  contained  a  chapel  for 
the  worship  of  the  emperors  ;  this  was  probably  introduced  into 
the  plan  of  the  structure  at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding.  The 
most  reasonable  supposition  is  that  the  chapel  was  built  in 
honor  of  Claudius,  and  that  his  statue  with  the  globe  as  a 
symbol  of  world  sovereignty  stood  on  the  pedestal  at  the  rear, 
while  in  the  niches  at  the  left  were  his  wife  Agrippina  and 
adopted  son   Nero. 

We  can  hardly  doubt  that  Claudius  was  worshipped  in  Pom- 
peii during  his  lifetime ;  it  is  known  from  inscriptions  that 
even  before  the  death  of  Claudius  Nero  was  honored  with  the 
services  of  a  special  priest.  That  Octavia  and  Marcellus, 
another  mother  with  a  son  who  was  heir  to  the  throne,  should 
be  placed  opposite  Agrippina  and  Nero,  was  quite  natural. 
Claudius,  who  through  his  mother  Antonia  was  the  grandson  of 
Octavia,  had  great  pride  in  this  relationship,  through  which 
alone  he  was  connected  with  the  family  of  Augustus ;  and  from 
Octavia,  Agrippina  and  Nero  also  were  descended,  the  former 
as  a  daughter  of  Germanicus,  Claudius's  brother,  and  the  latter 
through  his  father  Gnaeus  Domitius,  who  was  a  son  of  the  older 
daughter  of  Octavia,  also  called  Antonia.  This  thought  was 
suggested  by  the  grouping  of  Octavia  and  Marcellus  with  Agrip- 
pina and  Nero  :  Octavia's  descendants  are  now  on  the  throne,  as 
Augustus  intended  that  they  should  be ;  and  Nero  is  the  pride 


lOo  POMPEII 

and  hope  of  the  emperor  and  the  Roman  people,  as  once  Mar- 
cellus  was. 

The  room  at  the  left  of  the  imperial  chapel,  with  a  wide 
entrance  divided  by  two  columns  (6),  was  also  consecrated  to 
the  worship  of  the  emperors.  It  contains  a  low  altar  (shown 
on  the  plan)  of  peculiar  shape.  A  slab  of  black  stone  rests  on 
two  marble  steps ;  it  has  a  raised  rim  about  the  edge  with  a 
hole  in  one  corner.  Evidently  this  is  an  altar  for  drink  offerings  ; 
in  this  room  sacrificial  meals  were  partaken  of,  at  which  the 
long  estrade  at  the  right,  like  a  counter,  nearly  three  feet  high, 
was  perhaps  used  as  a  serving  table.  Such  meals  had  an  im- 
portant place  among  the  functions  of  the  Roman  colleges  of 
priests,  and  some  priesthood  connected  with  the  worship  of  the 
emperors  apparently  had  its  place  of  meeting  here ;  but  whether 
this  was  the  college  of  the  Seviri  Augustales,  composed  of 
freedmen,  or  a  more  aristocratic  priesthood  modelled  after  the 
Sodales  Augustales  at  Rome,  cannot  be  determined.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  niche  in  the  corner,  with  the  platform  in  front  of  it 
approached  by  steps,  is  unknown. 

In  this  room,  also,  there  were  two  pictures  containing  Cupids. 
In  one  they  were  represented  as  drinking  wine  and  playing  the 
lyre ;  in  the  other,  as  engaged  in  acts  of  worship  — both  appro- 
priate decorative  subjects  for  a  room  intended  for  sacrificial 
banquets. 

The  Macellum  was  entered  from  three  sides.  At  the  front, 
facing  the  Forum,  was  a  portico  consisting  of  two  orders  of 
white  marble  columns,  one  above  the  other,  supporting  a  roof. 
Fragments  of  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian  columns  belonging  to  the 
lower  order,  and  of  the  well  proportioned  intermediate  entabla- 
ture, have  been  preserved.  Statues  stood  at  the  foot  of  the 
columns,  as  also  at  the  ends  of  the  party  walls  between,  the 
shops  at  the  rear  of  the  portico,  and  beside  the  two  columns 
of  the  little  vestibule  at  the  entrance  ;  between  the  two  doors 
was  a  small  shrine,  and  here,  too,  was  a  statue. 

The  difference  in  direction  between  the  front  of  the  Macellum 
and  the  side  of  the  Forum  is  concealed  by  increasing  the  depth 
of  the  shops  from  south  to  north,  so  that  the  depth  of  the 
portico  remained  the  same.     The  room   at  the  extreme  right, 


THE    MACELLUM 


lOI 


being  so  shallow  that  it  could  not  be  used  as  a  shop,  was  made 
into  a  shrine  ;  the  image  or  images  set  up  in  it  must  have  been 
very  small.  What  divinities  were  worshipped  here,  unless  the 
Street  Lares,  cannot  be 
conjectured. 

There  is  another 
entrance  on  the  north 
side,  and  a  third  near 
the  southeast  corner. 
In  the  latter  are  steps, 
and  at  the  left  as  you 
come  in  is  a  small 
niche  under  which  two 
serpents  were  painted. 
This  humble  shrine  was 
probably  dedicated  to 
the  presiding  divinity 
of  the  building,  the 
Genius  Macelli. 

The  colonnade  of  the 
Macellum  was  thrown 
down  by  the  earthquake 
of  6^.  At  the  time  of 
the  eruption  the  stylo- 
bate  on  which  the  col- 


Fig.  39.  —  vStalm-  (it  M  iiL    I         >   II     I  (>(  t  ivia,  found 
in  the  chapel  of  the  Macellum. 


umns  rested,  and  the  gutter  in  front  of  it,  had  been  renewed ; 
but  only  the  columns  on  the  north  side  and  a  part  of  those  on 
the  west  side  had  been  set  up  again.  Both  the  columns  and 
the  entablature  have  entirely  disappeared,  in  consequence  of 
excavations  made  in  ancient  times. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  SAXCTUARY  OF  THE   CITY  LARES 

In  earlier  times  a  street  opened  into  the  Forum  south  of  the 
Macellum.  Later,  apparently  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  it  was 
closed,  and  the  end,  together  with  adjoining  space  at  the  south, 
was  occupied  by  a  building  which  measures  approximately  sixty 
by  seventy  Roman  feet. 

In  richness  of  material  and  architectural  detail  this  was  among 
the  finest  edifices  at  Pompeii.  Its  walls  and  floors  were  com- 
pletely covered  with  marble.  Now  we  see  only  rough  masonry, 
stripped  of  its  veneering,  but  enough  ves- 

.    I    I    I    T  T    r  T  T  1   1 

'  ^  the  whole  ;  in  Figs.  41   and  42  both  rear 

and  side  views  of  the  interior  are  given. 
'  \     ==JiL==  ifi^f^  -pi  Opening  into  the  main  room  at  the  rear 

is  a  large  apse  (Fig.  40,  2),  which  gives  to 
...  ™      f  1         .        the  building  a  peculiar  character.     In  the 

fig.  40. —  Plan  of  the  sanctuary  o        f 

of  the  City  Lares.  inner  part  of  the  apse  is  a  broad  founda- 

1.  Main  room,  unroofed,  with  an  tion  about  slx  fcct  high,  on  which  stood  a 

altar  in  the  centre.  i      •  /  7  ■        7    \  •     •  1  i 

2.  Apse,  with  shrine.  shrme  {acdiaila),  containing    a    pedestal 
3, 3.  Recesses -aiae.  fgj-  three  statucs  of  uot  uiorc  than   life 

4.    Niche  facing  the  Forum.  .  .        ^  ^ 

Size;  the  foundation  projects  in  front  of 
the  pedestal,  forming  a  table  for  offerings.  A  base  of  the  same 
height  as  the  foundation  of  the  shrine  runs  along  the  walls  of 
the  apse ;  it  supported  two  columns  and  two  attached  half- 
columns  on  the  right,  and  the  same  number  on  the  left. 

On  either  side  of  the  main  room  is  a  recess,  ala,  containing  a 
pedestal  for  a  statue  of  more  than  life  size.  The  two  entrances 
were  flanked  by  pilasters  nearly  two  Roman  feet  square,  while 
each  entrance  was  divided  into  three  parts  by  two  columns. 
There  were  three  niches  about  six  feet  above  the  floor  in  each 


THE   SANCTUARY   OF   THE    CITY    LARES 


103 


of  the  side  walls  of  the  main  room,  and  two  more  at  the  rear ; 
all  were  originally  flanked  by  small  pilasters  which  rested  on  a 
projecting  base.  The  remains  of  an  altar  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  middle  of  the  room. 

The  height  of  both  side  and  rear  walls  can  be  approximately 
computed  from  the  existing  remains,  the  basis  of  computation 
for  the  side  walls  being  the  thickness  of  the  pilasters  at  the 
entrance.  The  rear  part  of  the  building  was  certainly  not  less 
than  45  feet  high,  exclusive  of  the  gable,  while  the  sides  could 


Fig.  41.  —  Sanctudry  of  the  City  Lares,  looking  toward  the  rear,  restored. 


not  have  been  more  than  30  or  at  most  35.  This  difference 
in  height,  taken  with  other  indications,  obliges  us  to  conclude 
that  the  central  room  was  treated  as  a  paved  court  open  to  the 
sky;  only  the  apse  and  the  wings  were  roofed. 

It  is  evident  that  we  have  here  a  place  of  worship,  yet  not, 
properly  speaking,  a  temple.  The  shrine  in  the  apse,  with  its 
broad  pedestal  for  several  relatively  small  images,  presents  a 
striking  analogy  to  the  shrines  of  the  Lares  found  in  so  many 
private  houses.  Cities,  as  well  as  households,  had  their  guar- 
dian spirits.  The  worship  of  these  tutelary  divinities  was  reor- 
ganized by  Augustus,  who  ordered  that,  just  as  the  Genius  of 


I04 


POMPEII 


the  master  of  the  house  was  worshipped  at  the  family  shrine, 
so  his  Genius  should  receive  honor  together  with  the  Lares 
of  the  different  cities ;  thus  in  each  city  the  emperor  was  to 
be  looked  upon  as  a  father,  the  head  of  the  common  house- 
hold. As  the  house  had  its  shrine  for  the  Lares,  so  also  had 
the  city ;  that  in  Rome  was  near  the  spot  on  which  the  arch 
of  Titus  was  afterwards  erected. 

Undoubtedly  we  should  recognize  in  this  edifice  the  sanctuary 
of  the  Lares  of  the  city,  Larariiim  pitbliciun.     On  the  pedestal 


Fig.  42. —  North  side  of  tlie  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares,  restored. 


of  the  shrine  in  the  apse  the  Genius  of  Augustus  probably 
stood,  represented  by  a  statue  of  the  emperor  himself,  with  his 
toga  drawn  over  the  back  of  his  head,  offering  a  libation  ;  on 
his  right  and  on  his  left  were  the  two  Lares,  like  those  repre- 
sented in  paintings  (p.  271)  and  in  the  little  bronze  images  so 
often  found  in  house  shrines. 

In  connection  with  the  Lares  the  members  of  a  family  hon- 
ored other  gods,  Penates,  to  whose  special  protection  the  head 
of  the  household  had  committed  himself  and  his  interests.  As 
we  shall  see  later,  in  house  shrines  diminutive  bronze  figures 
representing  Hercules,  Mercury,  Fortuna,  and  other  divinities 


THE    SANCrUARV    OF    IHE    CUV    LARES  105 

are  often  found  together  with  those  of  the  Lares.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  other  gods  were  Ukewise  associated  with  the  Lares 
of  the  city  ;  and  perhaps  here  in  the  two  chapels  at  the  sides  of 
the  main  room  images  of  Ceres  and  of  Bacchus  were  placed. 
Regarding  the  statues  that  stood  in  the  eight  niches  it  is  better 
to  refrain  from  conjecture.  On  the  outside  of  the  building,  under 
the  portico  of  the  Macellum,  was  a  small  platform  (4),  the  raised 
floor  of  which  was  reached  by  steps. 

At  the  edge  of  the  Forum  in  front  of  the  building  are  eight 
square  blocks  of  basalt,  which  still  have  traces  of  the  iron  clamps 
by  which  marble  veneering  was  fastened  on.  These  supported 
the  columns  of  a  portico  which  was  joined  with  the  porticos  of 
the  Macellum  and  the  temple  of  Vespasian  and  took  the  place 
of  the  Forum  colonnade.  As  the  main  room  of  the  building  was 
open  to  the  sky,  the  portico  also  must  have  been  without  a  roof ; 
there  is  no  trace  of  any  support  for  the  ends  of  the  rafters  at  the 
rear.  The  columns  in  front,  probably  of  two  orders  one  above 
the  other,  were  merely  for  ornament.  Possibly  awnings  were 
at  times  stretched  over  the  area  of  the  portico  as  a  protection 
against  sun  and  rain. 


»x 


CHAPTER    XIV 

THE  TEMPLE   OF   VESPASFAM 

South  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares  is  another  rehgious 

edifice  of  an  entirely  different   character.     Passing    from    the 

Forum  across  the  open  space  once  occupied  by  the  portico  — 

of  which  no  remains  have  been  found  —  we 

enter  a  wide  doorway  and  find  ourselves  in 

a   four-sided    court    somewhat    irregular   in 

j"^  I       |'-["^VJ.^— I    shape  (Fig.  43).     The  front  part  is  occupied 

by  a  colonnade  ( i). 
Fig.  43.  —  Plan  of  the  tern-       At  the  rear  a  small  temple  ( 3 )  stands  upon 
pie  of  \espasian.         ^  high  podium  which  projects  in  front  of  the 

2.  Au^""'^  ^  cella  and  is  reached  by  two  flights  of  steps. 

3.  Temple.  Xhc  pcdcstal  for  the  image  of  the  divinity 

4.  Portico,  forming  part  of  the     .      ,       .,  .  ,  ,, 

colonnade  of  the  Forum.  IS  built  agamst  the  rear  wall. 

In  the  middle  of  the  court  is  an  altar 
faced  with  marble  and  adorned  on  all  four  sides  with  reliefs  of 
moderately  good  workmanship.  The  sacrificial  scene  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  44)  is  on  the  front  side, 
facing  the  entrance  to  the  court.  A  priest  with  a  toga  drawn 
over  his  head  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  those  offering  sacri- 
fice, pours  a  libation  from  a  shallow  bowl,  patera,  upon  an  altar 
having  the  form  of  a  tripod.  With  him  at  the  left  are  two  lie- 
tors  with  their  bundles  of  rods,  a  fluteplaver,  two  boys,  cainilli, 
carrying  the  utensils  for  the  sacrifice,  and  an  attendant ;  at 
the  right  a  bull  intended  for  sacrifice  is  being  brought  to  the 
altar  by  the  slayer,  victiniarius,  and  an  assistant.  In  the  back- 
ground is  a  tetrastyle  temple,  doubtless  the  temple  before  us ; 
the  scene  represents  the  dedicatory  exercises.  The  middle  in- 
tercolumniation  of  the  portico,  as  indicated  by  the  relief  and 
shown  in  the  plan,  is  wider  than  the  other  two. 

106 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   VESPASIAN 


107 


On  the  sides  of  the  altar  some  of  the  utensils  and  ceremonial 
objects  used  in  sacrificing  are  represented :  at  the  left  the 
napkin  {numtcle),  the  augural  staff  {/it/nts),  and  the  box  in  which 
the  incense  was  kept  {accrra)\  at  the  right  the  libation  bowl 
{patera),  a  ladle  {sijiipiilitin),  and  a  pitcher. 

The  reliefs  on  the  back  of  the  altar,  which  consist  simply  of 
a  wreath  of  oak  leaves  with  a  conventional  laurel  on  either  side, 
are  of  special  significance  and  give  a  clew  to  the  purpose  of  the 


¥\g.  44  —  Front  of  the  altar  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian. 


edifice.  On  the  thirteenth  of  January,  27  B.C.,  the  Senate  voted 
that  a  civic  crown  —  that  is,  one  made  of  oak  leaves,  of  the  kind 
awarded  to  a  soldier  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  Roman  cit- 
izen—  should  be  placed  above  the  door  of  the  house  in  which 
Augustus  lived,  and  that  the  doorposts  should  be  wreathed  with 
laurel.  From  that  time  the  civic  crown  and  the  laurel  were  recog- 
nized as  attributes  denoting  imperial  rank.  This  temple,  there- 
fore, was  built  in  honor  of  an  emperor.  From  the  inscriptions 
of  the  Arval  Brethren,  we  learn  that  in  the  case  of  a  living  em- 


io8 


POMPEII 


peror  a  bull  was  the  suitable  victim,  but  that  an  ox  was  sacri- 
ficed to  an  emperor  who  had  been  deitied  after  death.  As  the 
victim  on  our  altar  is  a  bull,  the  temple  must  have  been  dedi- 
cated to  an  emperor  during  his  lifetime.  With  these  facts  in 
mind  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  ascertain  to  whose  worship  the 
building  was  consecrated. 

The  coins  of  Augustus  have  both  the  civic  crown  and  the 
laurel,  but  those  of  his  immediate  successors  have  only  the 
former.  In  the  year  74  the  laurel  again  appears  with  the  crown 
on  the  coins  of  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  we  may  suppose  that 
the  distinction  formerlv  conferred  on  Augustus  Avas  about  this 


Fig.  45.  —  View  of  ihe  temple  of  Vespasian. 


time  revived  in  honor  of  Vespasian.  It  was  indeed  quite  natural 
that  men  should  think  of  Vespasian  and  Augustus  together. 
Both  restored  peace  and  order  after  disastrous  civil  wars ;  both 
adopted  severe  repressive  measures  against  luxury  and  immoral- 
ity, and  both  adorned  Rome  with  great  public  buildings.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline,  which  Augustus  had  re- 
paired and  made  more  magnificent,  Vespasian  rebuilt  from  the 
foundation  after  it  was  burned  in  69. 

The  Senate,  which  had  suffered  so  seriously  at  the  hands  of 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   VESPASIAN 


109 


Nero,  had  reason  to  be  deeply  grateful  to  Vespasian,  who  treated 
it  with  marked  respect,  in  this  also  following  the  example  of 
Augustus.  If  the  annals  of  the  reigns  of  the  Flavian  emperors 
were  not  so  meagre,  we  should  very  likely  find  a  decree  of  the 
Senate  honoring  Vespasian  with  the  civic  crown  and  the  laurel. 
Such  a  decree  might  well  have  suggested  the  founding  of  a 
temple,  and  the  placing  of  these  symbols  of  peace  and  victory 
upon  its  altar. 

The  temple  itself  was  built,  together  with  the  court,  after  the 
earthquake  of  63,  and  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  the  work  was 
not  entirely  completed.  The  walls  of  the  cella  and  of  the  en- 
trance from  the  Forum  had  received  their  veneering  of  marble 
and  were  in  a  finished  state ; 
but  those  of  the  court,  divided 
off  into  a  series  of  deep  panels 
above  which  small  pediments 
alternated  with  arches  (Fig. 
45),  had  received  only  a  rough 
coat  of  stucco  and  were  still 
awaiting  completion.  The 
temple  must  have  been  built 
in  the  time  of  Vespasian,  who 
reigned  from  68  to  79  a.d.  ; 
and  as  this  emperor  possessed 
too  great  simplicity  of  char- 
acter to  allow  men  to  worship 
him  as  a  god  while  he  was 
still  alive,  it  was  probably 
dedicated  to  his  Genius. 

The  rooms  at  the  rear  of  the 
temple  (shown   on  the  plan) 

were  entered  by  a  door  at  the  right.  They  may  have  served  as 
a  habitation  for  the  sacristan,  or  as  a  place  of  storage  for  the 
sacrificial  utensils.  The  north  room  was  also  connected  with 
rooms  belonging  to  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lares,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  unknown. 


Fig.  46.  —  The  temple  of  Vespasian,  restored. 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE  BUILDING   OF  EUMACHIA 

The  plan  of  the  large  building  on  the  east  side  of  the  Forum, 
between  the  temple  of  Vespasian  and  Abbondanza  Street,  is 
simple  and  regular.     In  front  is  a  deep  portico  (i),  facing  the 


Fig.  45.- 


10         5  0 

■Plan  of  the  buildins 


10  20M 

of  Eumachia. 


1.  Portico,  forming  part  of  the  colonnade  of  the 

Forum. 

2,  3.    Small  niches  for  statues. 

4,  4.   Apsidal  niches. 

5,  5.    Large  niches,  accessible  by  means  of  steps. 

6.  Entrance. 

7.  Passage  room  to  stairway. 

8.  Porter's  room. 

9,  9.    Colonnade. 


10.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Concordia  Augusta. 

11.  II.    Light  courts. 

12.  12.    Corridor. 

13.  Broad  niche  with  the  statue  of  Eumachia. 

14.  Passage    leading   from   Abbondanza    Street, 

with  a  door  opening  into  the  corridor. 

15.  Stone  with  ring. 

17,  17.    Rectangular  elevations. 

18,  18.    Remains  of  masonry. 


Forum.  The  interior  consists  of  a  large  oblong  court  with 
three  apses  at  the  rear  and  a  colonnade  about  the  four  sides  (9); 
on  three  sides  there  is  a  corridor  behind  the  colonnade,  with 
numerous  windows  opening  upon  it  (12).  The  corridor  could  be 
entered  by  three  doors,  two  at  the  front  end  of  the  court,  connect- 


THE    BUILDING   OF   EUMACHIA  iii 

ing  with  the  colonnade,  and  a  third  at  the  rear,  entered  from 
the  end  of  a  passage  leading  up  from  Abbondanza  Street  (14), 
the  grade  of  which  at  this  point  is  considerably  below  the  pave- 
ment of  the  building  (Fig.  50). 

An  inscription  appears  in  large  letters  on  the  entablature  of 
the  portico,  and  again  on  a  marble  tablet  over  the  side  entrance 
in  Abbondanza  Street:  EiiniacJiia  L.  f.,  sacerd\_os~\  piibl^ica\, 
nomine  sua  et  M.  Nninistri  Frontonis  fili  clialcidicuni,  cryptam, 
porticns  Concordiac  Augitstac  Pictati  sua  peqnnia  fecit  eadeuiqiie 
dcdicavit,  — '  Eumachia,  daughter  of  Lucius  Eumachius,  a  city 
priestess,  in  her  own  name  and  that  of  her  son,  Marcus  Numis- 
trius  Fronto,  built  at  her  own  expense  the  portico,  the  corridor 
{cryptam,  covered  passage),  and  the  colonnade,  dedicating  them 
to  Concordia  Augusta  and  Pietas.' 

The  word  pietas,  in  such  connections,  has  no  English  equiva- 
lent, and  is  difficult  to  translate.  It  sums  up  in  a  single  concept 
the  quaUties  of  fihal  affection,  conscientious  devotion,  and  obe- 
dience to  duty  which  in  the  Roman  view  characterized  the 
proper  conduct  of  children  toward  their  parents  and  grand- 
parents. Here  mother  and  son  united  in  dedicating  the  build- 
ing to  personifications,  or  deifications,  of  the  perfect  harmony 
and  the  regard  for  elders  that  prevailed  in  the  imperial  family. 

The  reference  of  the  dedication  can  only  be  to  the  relation 
between  the  Emperor  Tiberius  and  his  mother  Livia  ;  it  cannot 
apply  to  Nero  and  Agrippina,  for  the  reason  that  the  walls  of 
the  building  were  decorated  in  the  third  Pompeian  style,  which 
in  Nero's  time  was  no  longer  in  vogue.  In  22  a.d.,  when  Livia 
was  very  ill,  the  Senate  voted  to  erect  an  altar  to  Pietas 
Augusta.  In  the  following  year  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius, 
gave  expression  to  his  regard  for  his  grandmother  by  placing 
her  likeness  upon  his  coins,  with  the  word  Pietas. 

On  the  coins  of  colonies  also — of  Saragossa  and  another  the 
name  of  which  is  not  known  —  the  Pietas  Augusta  appears,  ap- 
parently about  the  same  time.  Not  long  afterwards  the  har- 
monious relations  between  Tiberius  and  his  mother  gave  place 
to  mutual  suspicion  and  hostility ;  the  dedication  therefore 
points  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  in  this 
period    the   building   was    no    doubt    erected.      The    statue    of 


112  POMPEII 

Concordia  Augusta,  a  female  figure  with  a  gilded  cornucopia, 
was  found  in  the  building ;  the  head,  which  has  not  been  pre- 
served, probably  bore  the  features  of  Livia.  By  this  dedication 
the  building  of  Eumachia,  as  the  Macellum  later,  was  placed 
under  the  protection  of  the  imperial  house. 

While  the  parts  are  enumerated  in  the  dedicatory  inscription, 
neither  the  name  of  the  building  as  a  whole,  nor  the  purpose,  is 
mentioned.  A  hint  of  the  latter,  however,  is  found  in  another 
inscription.  A  broad  niche  (13)  opens  into  the  corridor  at  the 
rear,  directly  behind  the  largest  apse.  Here  stood  a  marble 
statue  of  a  beautiful  woman  (Fig.  255),  now  replaced  by  a 
cast ;  the  original  is  in  Naples.  Upon  the  pedestal  we  read  : 
EuniacJiiae  L.  /.,  sacerd  \oti'\  pnbl{icac'\,  fnlloiies,  —  '  Dedicated 
to  Eumachia,  daughter  of  Lucius  Eumachius,  a  city  priestess, 
by  the  fullers.' 

This  building,  in  which  the  fullers  had  set  up,  in  a  specially 
prominent  place,  a  statue  of  the  person  who  had  erected  it, 
must  in  some  way  have  served  the  purposes  of  their  trade. 
Clearly  enough  it  was  not  a  fullery ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  was 
well  adapted  for  a  clothier's  exchange,  a  bazaar  for  the  sale  of 
cloth  and  articles  of  clothing.  Tables  and  other  furniture  for 
the  convenience  of  dealers  could  be  placed  in  the  colonnade  and 
the  corridor  ;  in  the  corridor,  especially,  goods  exposed  for  sale  in 
front  of  the  open  windows  could  be  conveniently  inspected  by 
prospective  buyers,  —  not  only  by  those  in  the  corridor  itself, 
but  also  by  those  looking  in  from  the  colonnade.  The  small 
doors  between  the  corridor  and  the  colonnade  could  be  securely 
closed,  and  the  entrance  from  Abbondanza  Street  could  be 
easily  guarded ;  there  was  only  a  narrow  door  at  the  end 
of  the  passage  opening  into  the  corridor,  and  at  the  street 
entrance  was  a  porter's  room  connected  by  doors  both  with 
the  passage  and  with  the  street.  This  evidence  of  unusual 
precaution  suggests  that  possibly  the  side  entrance,  from  its 
close  connection  with  the  corridor,  was  intended  especially  for 
the  conveyance  of  goods  to  and  from  the  building,  in  order 
that  the  front  entrance  might  be  left  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
purchasers  and  dealers. 

On  the  assumption  that  the  building  was  a  cloth  market,  it  is 


THE    BUI  [.DING    OF    KUMACHIA  113 

clear  that  the  colonnade  would  naturally  be  open  at  all  times, 
the  corridor  only  during  business  hours ;  after  business  hours 
the  corridor  would  be  closed  for  the  protection  of  the  goods  left 
there  over  night.  The  windows  may  have  been  closed  with 
shutters  as  in  the  Oriental  bazaars.  Other  peculiarities  of  ar- 
rangement also  are  cleared  up  by  this  explanation,  but  we 
cannot  present  them  in  detail.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to 
make  out  what  the  purpose  was  of  certain  remains  of  masonry 
found  on  the  south  side  of  the  court  (18)  which  have  now  dis- 
appeared, or  of  two  rectangular  elevations  at  the  rear  (17),  or, 
finally,  of  a  large  stone  in  the  middle  of  the  court  in  which 
a  movable  iron  ring  is  fastened  (15).  Our  information  is  so 
scanty  that  we  are  unable  to  determine  in  all  particulars  what 
the  requirements  of  a  fuller's  exchange  might  have  been. 

At  the  time  of  the  eruption  men  were  still  engaged  in  rebuild- 
ing the  parts  of  the  edifice  that  had  suffered  in  the  earthquake 
of  6t,.  The  front  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  portico  was  finished 
and  had  received  its  veneering  of  marble ;  as  shown  by  the 
existing  remains,  it  conformed  to  the  plan  of  the  earher  structure. 
The  columns  ai^d  entablature  of  the  portico  had  not  yet  been 
set  in  place  ;  considerable  portions  of  them  were  found  in  the 
area  of  the  Forum.  The  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  court,  with  the 
three  apses,  had  been  rebuilt,  and  the  workmen  had  begun  to 
add  the  marble  covering.  The  other  walls  had  remained  stand- 
ing at  the  time  of  the  earthquake ;  ^but  the  colonnade  had  been 
thrown  down  and  was  now  in  process  of  erection.  The  remains 
of  the  colonnade  were  removed  in  ancient  times,  probably  soon 
after  the  destruction  of  the  city ;  yet  from  the  parts  that  remain, 
both  of  the  old  building  and  of  the  restorations,  we  can  determine 
the  architectural  character  with  certainty.  We  give  two  recon- 
structions of  the  interior,  one  showing  the  front  (Fig.  48),  the 
other  the  rear  (Fig.  49). 

The  colonnade  and  the  portico  were  characterized  by  the 
same  peculiarity  of  construction  :  they  were  in  two  stories,  one 
above  the  other,  but  there  was  no  upper  floor  corresponding 
with  the  intermediate  entablature.  In  the  case  of  the  portico 
this  is  certain  from  the  treatment  of  the  wall  at  the  rear,  the 
ornamentation   of    which   is   carried  without  interruption    high 


114 


POMPEII 


above  the  level  of  the  entablature.  If  the  appearance  of  this 
building  alone  had  been  taken  into  account,  it  would  have  been 
simpler  and  more  effective  to  place  at  the  front  of  the  portico  a 
single  order  of  large  columns  the  height  of  which  should  corre- 
spond with  that  of  the  f  agade ;  but  as  the  colonnade  about  the 
Forum  was  in  two  stories,  the  front  of  the  portico  was  made  to 
conform  to  it.  The  columns  below  were  of  the  Doric,  those 
above  of  the  Ionic,  order.  The  material  —  whitish  limestone  — 
was  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  new  colonnade  of  the  Forum. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  skilful  handling  of  details  a  certain  individ- 
uality was  given  to  the  columns  ;  while  in  general  appearance 
they  harmonized  with  those  about  the  Forum,  the  portico  as  a 
whole  stood  out  by  itself  as  something  distinct  and  characteristic. 
The  columns  of  the  portico  were  left  unfluted,  as  were  those 
of  the  new  Forum  colonnade,  and  were  of  the  same  height;  but 

their  proportions  were 
more  slender,  their 
ornamental  forms 
were  slightly  differ- 
ent, and  they  were 
set  closer  together. 
The  pains  and  skill 
manifested  in  har- 
monizing the  partic- 
ular with  the  general 
architectural  effect  re- 
flect much  credit  upon 
the  Pompeian  board 
of  public  works.  Under  the  portico  at  the  foot  of  each  column 
was  a  statue,  facing  the  front  of  the  building ;  the  pedestals, 
which  still  remain,  assist  in  determining  the  places  of  the  col- 
umns, of  which  only  one  was  found  in  position.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  columns  could  be  closed  oy  latticed  gates,  as  may  be 
seen  from  traces  of  them  remaining  in  the  marble  pavement 
at  the  south  end  of  the  portico;  the  pavement  elsewhere  has 
disappeared. 

The  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  portico,  facing  the  Forum,  was 
richly  ornamented.    The  broad  entrance  in  the  middle  (6)  was 


l-'g-48-  — Tl 


luiUling  of  Eumachia:  front  of  the 
court,  restored. 


THE    BUILDING   OF    EUMACHIA 


115 


bridged  at  the  top  by  a  lintel.  At  the  ends  are  two  large  niches 
more  than  four  feet  above  the  pavement  (5),  both  reached  by 
flights  of  steps.  Between  each  of  these  and  the  doorway  is  a 
large  apsidal  arched  niche  (4)  extending  down  to  the  pavement. 
Lastly  in  the  projecting  portions  of  the  wall  are  four  smaller 
niches  for  statues.  The  whole  facade  was  overlaid  with  various 
kinds  of  colored  marbles. 

None  of  the  statues  have  been  found,  but  the  inscriptions 
belonging  to  the  two  that  stood  in  the  small  niches  at  the  left 
are  extant  and  of  special  interest ;  the  names  of  the  persons 
represented,  Aeneas  and  Romulus,  are  given,  together  with  a 
short  enumeration  of  their  heroic  deeds.  These  statues  were 
evidently  copies ;  the  originals  formed  a  part  of  a  famous  series 
in  Rome. 

Augustus  set  up  in  his  Forum  the  statues  of  renowned  Roman 
generals  with  inscriptions  setting  forth  their  services  to  the 
State  ;  in  this  way,  he  said,  the  people  might  obtain  a  standard 
of  comparison  for  himself  and  his  successors.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  series  were  Aeneas,  the  kings  of  Alba  Longa,  and  Rom- 
ulus. Not  one  of  these  statues  has  been  preserved,  but  some 
of  the  inscriptions  have  been  found  in  Rome,  while  others  are 
known  from  copies  discovered  in  Arezzo,  where  without  doubt, 
as  at  Pompeii,  they  were  set  up  with  copies  of  the  statues — a 
forcible  illustration  of  the  striving  of  the  smaller  cities  to  be  like 
Rome.  Two  other  statues,  perhaps  representing  Julius  Caesar 
and  Augustus,  stood  in  the  niches  at  the  right  corresponding 
with  those  of  Aeneas  and  Romulus  ;  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
rest  of  the  series  in  Rome  was  duplicated  here,  because  the 
remaining  pedestals  in  the  portico  were  all  designed  for  figures 
of  larger  size. 

The  colonnade  about  the  court  was  of  marble.  The  front 
part,  as  one  entered  from  the  portico,  was  higher  than  that  on 
the  sides  and  rear  (Fig.  48);  it  must  have  presented  a  fine 
architectural  effect.  The  two  series  of  Corinthian  columns,  one 
above  the  other,  reached  the  height  of  30  feet ;  the  wall  be- 
hind was  diversified  with  niches  and  completely  covered  with 
marble.  At  the  right  and  at  the  left  one  could  pass  down  the 
sides  under  the  colonnade,  or  through  small  doors  into  the  cor- 


ii6 


POMPEII 


ridor.  The  walls  between  the  colonnade  and  the  corridor, 
pierced  with  large  windows,  were  decorated  below  with  a  dado 
of  colored  marbles  and  above  with  painting  upon  stucco,  in 
the  third  style. 

The  two  smaller  apsidal  niches  at  the  rear  were  no  higher 
than  the  colonnade,  but  the  central  apse  projected  above  and 
terminated  in  a  marble  pediment  (Fig.  49),  fragments  of  which 
are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  building.  It  was  entered  through 
three  arched  doorways,  above  which  apparently  there  were 
windows.  The  image  of  Concordia  Augusta,  with  the  features 
of  Livia,  probably  stood  on  the  pedestal  at  the  rear  of  the  apse, 
while  the  statues  of  Tiberius  and  Drusus  may  have  adorned  the 
niches  at  the  sides. 

We  can  readily  see  why  the  colonnade  was  made  so  high, 
and  in  two  stories,  when  a  lower  structure  would  have  afforded 
better  protection  against  sun  and  rain.     Had  it  been  limited  to 

the  usual  height  the 
corridor  behind  it 
would  have  been  too 
dark;  and  if  instead 
of  a  double  series  of 
small  columns,  one 
above  the  other,  there 
had  been  a  single  se- 
ries of  large  columns 
of  the  usual  propor- 
tions, the  thickness  of 
the  latter  would  have 
shut  out  much  light 
and  have  made  the  colonnade  seem  less  roomy.  The  arrange- 
ment adopted  had  the  further  advantage  that  it  harmonized 
the  aspect  of  the  colonnade  with  that  of  the  portico,  the  char- 
acter of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  determined  by  that  of  the 
colonnade  about  the  Forum. 

The  small  rooms  of  irregular  shape  at  the  sides  of  the  apse 
(11)  were  light  courts,  left  open  to  the  sky  in  order  to  furnish 
light  to  the  corridor  at  the  rear,  which  was  shut  off  from  the 
colonnade. 


Fig.  49.  —  Rear  of  the  court  of  the  building  of  Euniachia, 
restored. 


THE    BUILDING    OF    EUMACHIA 


117 


The  corridor  was  about  fourteen  feet  in  height ;  its  walls  still 
have  remains  of  decoration  in  the  third  style. 

At  the  right  of  the  broad  niche  (13),  in  which  the  statue  of 
Eumachia  was  found,  a  door  opened  into  the  passage  leading 
from  Abbondanza  Street ;  in  the  corresponding  position  at  the 
left,  where  there  was  no  entrance,  a  door  was  painted  upon  the 
wall.  This  is  a  folding  door  in  three  parts,  of  a  kind  quite 
common  at  Pompeii;  the  middle  part  is  hung  by  means  of  hinges, 
like  those  on  doors  of  the  present  day,  fastened  to  one  of  the 
leaves  at  the  sides,  while  these  are  represented  as  swinging  on 
pivots  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 

A  stairway  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  corridor,  over  the 


Fig.  50. —  Fountain  of  Concordia  Augusta. 
In  the  background,  steps  in  the  side  entrance  of  the  Eumachia  building. 

entrance  from  Abbondanza  Street,  led  to  an  upper  room.  A 
similar  stairway  was  placed  in  the  last  of  the  little  rooms  be- 
tween the  court  and  the  portico,  at  the  left  of  the  front  entrance. 
The  upper  rooms,  difficult  to  reach,  could  hardly  have  been 
intended  for  salesrooms.  They  must  have  been  low,  probably 
no  higher  than  the  difference  between  the  height  of  the  colon- 
nade and  that  of  the  corridor.  They  were  most  likely  used  as 
temporary  storerooms  for  the  goods  of  the  dealers. 

In  front  of  the  entrance  from  Abbondanza  Street,  is  a  foun- 
tain of  the  ordinary  Pompeian  form  ;  as  the  material  is  lime- 
stone it  is  probably  of  later  date  than  the  other  fountains,  which 
are  generally  of  basalt.      As  may  be  seen  in  our  illustration 


ii8  POMPEII 

(Fig.  50),  the  inlet  pipe  was  carried  by  a  broad  standard  pro- 
jecting above  the  edge  of  the  basin,  on  the  front  of  which  a 
bust  of  a  female  ligure  with  a  cornucopia  is  carved  in  relief. 
The  right  side  of  the  face  has  been  worn  away  by  eager  drink- 
ers pressing  their  mouths  against  the  mouth  of  the  figure, 
whence  the  jet  issued  ;  it  reminds  one  of  the  attenuated  right 
foot  of  the  famous  bronze  St.  Peter  in  Rome.  Hands  also  have 
worn  deep,  polished  hollows  in  the  stone  on  either  side  of  the 
standard.  The  figure  represents  Concordia  Augusta,  but  the 
name  Abundantia,  given  to  it  when  first  discovered,  still  lingers 
in  the  Italian  name  for  the  street,  which  might  more  appropri- 
ately have  been  called  Strada  della  Concordia. 


^i. —  Plan  of  the 


CHAPTER    XVI 

THE  COMITIUM 

The  last  building  on  the  east  side  of  the  Forum,  south  of 
Abbondanza  Street,  had  undergone  a  complete  transformation  a 
short  time  before  the  destruction  of  the  city.  Before  the  rebuild- 
ing, a  row  of  pillars  separated  the  interior  of 

the  structure  from  the   Forum  and  from  the     -^— i,  ^ '    ^ 

street.  At  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk  along 
the  latter  are  square  holes  opposite  the  pil- 
lars (shown  on  the  plan.  Fig.  51),  evidently 
designed  for  the  insertion  of  posts,  so  that  a 
temporary  barrier  of  some  sort  could  be  set 
up.  The  end  of  the  space  within  the  barrier 
where  this  came  to  the  Forum,  and  of  the  rest 

Comilium. 

of  the  street  as  well,  could  be  shut  off  by  lat-       o  ,, 

'  J  I.    Kecess  opening  on  the 

ticed   gates.  n^ain    room. 

If  the  barrier  were  set  up,  and  the  latticed  ^'  FoTun!'.^^"'"° °" 
gate  at  the  Forum  end  left  open,  the  building 
and  the  space  within  the  barrier  would  be  shut  off  from 
Abbondanza  Street,  but  closely  connected  with  the  Forum  by 
the  numerous  entrances.  After  the  rebuilding  only  two 
entrances  from  the  Forum  were  left,  and  one  from  Abbon- 
danza Street. 

It  is  altogether  unhkely  that  so  large  a  building,  of  irregular 
shape  and  with  pillars  on  two  sides,  was  provided  with  a  roof ; 
we  have  here  an  open  space  rather,  serving  as  an  extension  of 
the  Forum.  The  walls  were  covered  with  marble  and  adorned 
with  niches,  in  which,  without  doubt,  statues  were  placed.  On 
the  south  side  is  a  large  recess  the  floor  of  which,  reached  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  forms  a  kind  of  platform  or  tribune  about  four 
feet  above  the  pavement  of  the  enclosure  (i).      A  small  door  at 

119 


[U«    til 


I20  POMPEII 

the  right  leads  into  a  narrow  room  containing  a  similar  platform 
opening  on  the  colonnade  of  the  Forum  (2),  and  to  all  appear- 
ances once  accessible  from  it  by  steps ;  afterwards  both  the 
steps  and  the  tribune  were  walled  up. 

The  purpose  of  these  tribunes,  and  of  the  building  as  a  whole, 
is  far  from  clear.  An  analogy,  however,  suggests  itself.  On 
one  side  of  the  Roman  Forum  near  the  upper  end  was  a  small 
rectangular  open  space  called  the  Comitium,  used  in  early 
times  as  a  voting  place.  Between  the  Forum  and  the  Comitium 
was  originally  a  speaker's  platform,  the  Rostra,  so  placed  that 
orators  by  turning  toward  one  side  could  address  an  audience 
in  the  Comitium  and  facing  about  could  harangue  the  Forum. 
Though  the  later  changes  have  obscured  the  original  form  of 
our  building,  yet  it  is  plain  that  at  one  time  there  must  have 
been  two  connected  tribunes,  one  facing  the  Forum,  the  other 
the  enclosed  open  space  ;  we  may  at  least  hazard  the  conjecture 
that  the  colonists  of  Sulla,  taking  the  arrangements  of  the 
capital  as  their  pattern  in  all  things,  designed  this  place  as 
their  Comitium. 

The  enclosure  was  too  small  to  admit  of  its  use  for  voting 
according  to  the  ancient  fashion,  but  general  elections  in  the 
Comitium  had  long  been  a  thing  of  the  past ;  only  the  unim- 
portant curiate  elections  were  held  there,  at  which  each  curia 
was  represented  by  a  lictor,  and  at  other  times  the  place  was 
used  for  judicial  proceedings.  So  our  building  was  probably 
used,  if  not  for  elections,  for  formalities  preliminary  to  the 
elections  and  for  business  connected  with  the  courts. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE  MbWICIPAL   BUILDINGS 

At  the  south  end  of  the  Forum  were  three  buildings  similar 
in  plan  and  closely  connected.  In  front  they  presented  a  com- 
mon fagade,  the  narrow  spaces  between  them  being  entered 
by  low  doors.  The  building  at  the  right  (Fig.  52,  3)  was  at  the 
corner  of  the  Forum,  while  the  space  separating  the  other  two 
lay  on  a  line  dividing  the  Forum  into  two  equal  parts  ;  east  of 
the  last  building  is  the  Strada  delle  Scuole. 

The  three  buildings  were  erected  after  the  earthquake  of 
63,  on  the  site  of  older  buildings  of  the  same  character.  In 
the   walls  of  that  furthest  east  ( i ),   con- 

12  3 

siderable  remains  of  the  earlier  walls  are    h^^    _ei_  _yg\r 


'^^: 


Fig.  52,  —  Plan  of  the  Munic- 
ipal Buildings. 

1.  Office  of  the  duumvirs. 

2.  Hall  of  the  city  council. 

3.  Office  of  the  aediles. 


embodied ;  in  that  near  the  corner  the 
original  pavement  is  preserved,  and  in 
the  middle  building  there  are  traces  of  the 
original  pavement.  Previous  to  this  re- 
building the  inner  series  of  columns  be- 
longing to  the  colonnade  about  the  Forum 
had  in  part  been  removed  and  a  barrier  set 
up,  by  which  the  space  in  front  of  the  mid- 
dle building  and  that  at  the  left  could  be  shut  off  (indicated 
on  the  plan  by  broken  lines).  At  the  time  of  the  eruption  only 
the  building  at  the  left  (i)  was  entirely  finished.  The  others 
still  lacked  their  decoration  on  both  inner  and  outer  walls. 

These  three  spacious  halls  must  have  served  the  purposes  of 
the  city  administration.  The  two  at  the  right  and  the  left  are 
alike  in  having  at  the  end  opposite  the  entrance  an  apse  large 
enough  to  accommodate  one  or  more  magistrates  with  their 
attendants ;  they  were  the  oi^cial  quarters  of  the  aediles  and 
the  duumvirs,  while  the  middle  hall  was  the  council  chamber, 
curia,  where  the  decurions  met. 

121 


Vin 


POMPEII 


The  middle  room  was  obviously  intended  to  be  the  most 
richly  ornamented  of  the  three,  and  was  further  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  the  elevation  of  its  floor,  which  was  more 
than  two  feet  above  the  pavement  of  the  colonnade.  In  front 
of  the  entrance  is  a  platform  reached  at  either  end  b}^  an 
approach  hardly  wide  enough  for  two  persons,  thus  suited  for 
a  select  rather  than  a  large  attendance. 

Along  the  sides  within  runs  a  ledge  a  little  more  than  five 
feet  above  the  floor,  on  which  rested  a  double  series  of  col- 
umns, one  above  the  other,  serving  both  as  ornament  and  as 
a    support    for    a    ceiling    like    that    of    the   temple  of   Jupiter. 


Fig.  53. —  X'icw  of  the  suulli  ciid  uf  llic  lorum. 

In  the  background,  the  ruins  of  the  municipal  buildings ;   in  front  of  these,  the  reinains  of 

the  colonnade.    In  the  middle  ground  the  pedestals  of  the  statues  of  the  imperial  family. 

If  w^e  picture  to  ourselves  the  columns  in  place,  the  walls  cov- 
ered with  marble,  and  a  rich  coffered  ceihng  above,  we  are  led 
to  form  a  favorable  idea  of  the  recuperative  powers  of  the  city 
which  set  about  the  construction  of  such  costly  and  splendid 
buildings  so  soon  after  the  terrible  earthquake. 

The  recess  at  the  rear  was  designed  for  a  large  shrine  pat- 
terned after  the  small  shrines  of  the  Lares  and  Penates  in 
private  houses.  The  Penates  of  the  city  were  above  all  the 
emperor  and  his  family.  If  this  shrine  had  been  finished,  fig- 
ures representing  Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian  would  proba- 
bly have  been  placed  in  it,  facing  the  three  Capitoline  divinities 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  the  other  end  of  the  Forum. 


THE    MUNICIPAL    BUILDINGS  123 

The  office  of  the  aediles,  situated  at  the  corner  of  the  colon- 
nade and  close  to  the  BasiHca,  and  with  no  barrier  to  prevent 
ready  access,  was  particularly  convenient  for  magistrates  who, 
among  other  duties,  were  charged  with  the  maintenance  of 
order  and  the  enforcement  of  regulations  in  the  markets.  One 
or  perhaps  both  aediles  sat  in  the  apse ;  while  the  rear  and 
middle  parts  of  the  room  were  reserved  for  those  who  had 
business  with  them.  The  front  part,  lower  than  the  rest  by  two 
steps  (shown  on  the  plan),  may  have  served  as  a  waiting  room. 
At  the  rear  of  the  apse  and  in  the  walls  at  the  sides  were  niches 
for  the  statues  of  members  of  the  imperial  family  and  of  those 
who  had  rendered  important  services  to  the  city. 

As  the  duumvirs  not  only  sat  as  judges  but  also  had  in  their 
hands  the  financial  administration  of  the  city,  we  can  see  why 
the  hall  set  aside  for  their  use  was  the  first  to  be  rebuilt  after 
the  earthquake.  The  magistrates,  of  course,  sat  in  the  apse, 
along  the  wall  of  which  was  a  ledge  for  statues.  The  strong 
front  doors  were  fastened  with  iron  bolts,  and  there  was  also 
a  latticed  gate  on  the  step  in  front  of  the  threshold  ;  probably 
the  archives  of  the  duumviral  office  were  kept  within.  The 
small  side  door  at  the  right  made  it  possible  to  enter  and  leave 
the  building  after  business  hours  or  at  other  times  when  the 
large  doors  were  closed. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

THE   TEMPLE   OF   VENUS  POMPE/AA'A 

For  some  years  it  had  been  known  that  a  temple  once  stood 
in  the  rectangular  block  south  of  the  strada  della  Marina ;  and 
in  1898  workmen  excavating  here  began  to  uncover  the  massive 
foundations.  When  the  volcanic  deposits  had  been  removed  it 
was  seen  that  the  court  of  the  temple,  with  the  surrounding  col- 
onnade, occupied  the  whole  area  between  the  Basilica  and  the 
west  wall  of  the  long  room  now  used  as  a  Museum.  On  the 
podium  (Fig.  55)  was  found  a  part  of  a  statuette  of  Venus,  of 
the  familiar  type  which  represents  the  goddess  as  preparing  to 
enter  the  bath  ;  it  was  probably  a  votive  offering  set  up  by  some 
worshipper.  In  the  subterranean  passageway  entered  near  the 
southeast  corner  (Fig.  54,  IV)  the  excavators  found  another 
votive  offering,  a  bronze  steering  paddle  of  the  kind  shown  in 
paintings  as  an  attribute  of  Venus  Pompeiana ;  an  example  may 
be  seen  in  Fig.  4  (p.  12).  From  these  indications,  as  well  as 
from  the  size  of  the  temple  and  its  location,  near  the  Forum  and 
on  an  elevation  commanding  a  wide  view  of  the  sea,  we  are  safe 
in  assigning  the  sanctuary  to  Venus  Pompeiana,  the  patron 
divinity  of  Roman  Pompeii. 

Prior  to  the  founding  of  the  Roman  colony  the  site  of  the 
temple  had  been  occupied  by  houses,  built  in  several  stories  on 
the  edge  of  the  hill,  which  here  slopes  sharply  toward  the  south- 
west ;  remains  of  the  houses,  which  must  have  resembled  those 
farther  east  (an  example  is  the  house  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II, 
p.  344),  have  been  brought  to  light  in  the  course  of  the  excava- 
tions. In  less  than  a  century  and  a  half  the  temple  was  twice 
built,  twice  destroyed  ;  a  third  building  was  in  progress  at  the 
time  of  the  eruption. 

The  first  temple  was  erected  in  the  early  years  of  the  Roman 
colony.      An  area  approximately    185   Roman  feet  square  was 

124 


THF:   TPIMPLK    OK    VKXUS    POMPEIANA 


125 


prepared  for  it  by  levelling  off  and  filling  up,  terrace  walls  being 
built  to  hold  in  place  the  earth  and  rubbish  used  for  filling.  The 
foundations  of  the  walls  about  the  court  (A-B,  C-D-E)  can  still 
be  traced  except  on  the  south  side,  where,  perhaps  in  conse- 


Fig.  54.  —  Plan  of  the  temple  of  V^eniis  Pompeiana. 

I,  n.    Remains  of  podium  of  first  and  second  temples. 

III.  Altar. 

IV.  Entrance  to  underground  passage. 

V.  VI.    Pedestals. 

A-B,  C-D-E.    Foundations  of  walls  of  court  of  first  temple 

F-G-G',  G"-H-I.    Foundation  of  stylobate  of  colonnade  of  first  temple,  with  gutter. 

A'-B'.    Foundation  of  rear  wall  of  rooms  opening  on  colonnade  of  first  temple. 

a-b  c-d.    Walls  of  court  of  second  temple. 

e-f-g-h.  e'-f,  g -h' .     Foundations  of  colonnade  of  second  temple  —  two  rows  of 

columns  on  each  side,  a  single  row  at  the  rear. 
K.    Main  entrance  of  court  of  second  temple. 
L.    Smaller  entrance  of  court  of  second  temple. 

x,y,  2.    Old  foundation  walls  having  nothing  to  do  \\ith  the  temple. 
a-B-c-c'-b'.    Enlargement  of  podium  for  third  temple. 


■^\\\ 


quence  of  the  earthquake  at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  every 
vestige  has  disappeared,  and  at  the  southwest  corner,  where 
excavations  for  buildinii  materials  in  iriodern   times  have  been 


126 


POMPEII 


carried  below  the  Roman  level,  a  part  of  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  itself  having  been  removed.  These  walls  conformed  to 
the  direction  of  the  walls  of  the  Basilica,  the  corners,  as  those 
of  the  Basilica,  showing  a  noticeable  divergence  from  a  right 
angle. 

The  front  of  the  earlier  colonnade  is  outlined  by  the  gutter 
(F-G-C,  G"-H-I),  constructed  of  blocks  of  tufa,  which  show 
signs  of  long  use,  and  the  foundation  of  the  stylobate  behind  the 


Fig-  55- — Ruins  of  the  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana,  viewed  from  the  southeast. 

At  the  right,  foundation  of  the  front  row  of  columns  of  the  latest  uinfinishedi  colonnade;  then  founda- 
tion of  stylobate  of  earlier  colonnade,  with  gutter.  In  foreground,  entrance  to  subterranean  pas- 
sage. On  the  podium  of  the  temple  at  the  farther  end  is  seen  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  the 
divinity.     The  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  court  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  strada  della  Marina. 


gutter,  which  is  plainly  seen  (Fig.  55);  in  places  (as  indicated 
in  the  plan),  the  layer  of  mortar  spread  over  this  foundation 
shows  the  impressions  made  by  the  blocks  of  the  stylobate  which 
rested  on  it.  At  the  middle  of  the  north  side  (G'-G")  both  the 
gutter  and  the  wall  under  the  stylobate  were  removed  when  the 
foundations  of  the  third  temple  were  extended  in  that  direction. 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   VENUS   POMPEIANA  127 

Along  the  gutter  were  basins  for  water  used  in  cleaning  the  floor 
of  the  court,  which  was  made  of  fine  concrete.  The  entrance  to 
the  court  was  at  the  northeast  corner. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  court  were  six  rooms,  the  rear  of  which 
was  formed  by  the  wall  A'B'.  Two  of  these  opened  on  the 
colonnade  in  their  whole  breadth,  and  four  with  narrow  doors, 
the  thresholds  of  which,  of  whitish  limestone,  are  still  in  place. 
Their  purpose  cannot  be  determined.  The  cross  walls  shown 
in  the  plan  on  the  west  side  (x,  y,  z)  belonged  to  an  earlier  build- 
ing, and  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  temple. 

In  front  of  the  temple  are  remains  of  a  large  altar  of  whitish 
limestone  (HI).  On  the  east  side  of  the  court  is  the  base  of 
an  equestrian  statue  (V),  of  the  same  material,  which  was  after- 
wards veneered  with  marble ;  near  it  is  a  pedestal  of  a  standing 
figure  (VI),  of  masonry  covered  with  stucco,  and  behind  this  is 
the  small  base  of  a  fountain  figure.  Near  the  southeast  cornei' 
is  the  entrance  (IV)  to  a  subterranean  passageway  which  runs 
toward  the  south  ;  it  probably  led  to  rooms  of  earlier  houses 
which  were  preserved,  when  the  area  was  filled  up,  for  the  use 
of  the  attendants  of  the  temple. 

The  temple  itself,  as  the  other  edifices,  religious  and  secular, 
of  the  first  years  of  the  Roman  colony,  must  have  been  built  of 
common  materials  and  coated  with  stucco.  Of  the  existing  re- 
mains only  the  inner  part  of  the  podium  (I,  II  on  the  Plan)  can 
be  assigned  to  it ;  a  series  of  small  blocks  of  tufa  at  the  rear  end 
is  perhaps  a  remnant  of  the  cornice  which  was  carried  around 
the  upper  edge  of  the  podium. 

To  the  Pompeians  of  the  Empire  the  modest  structure  of 
Republican  days  seemed  unworthy  of  the  tutelary  divinity  of 
their  city.  On  the  same  podium  they  built  a  temple  of  marble. 
Of  this  are  preserved  the  foundations  of  the  door  posts  of  the 
cella  (Fig.  56  a)  and  the  core  of  the  pedestal  (D)  on  which  stood 
the  statue  of  the  divinity,  besides  some  bits  of  the  cella  floor, 
which  consisted  of  a  border  of  white  mosaic  {b),  a  broad  strip  of 
pavement  of  small  flags  of  colored  marble  (/"),  and  an  ornamental 
centre  {a)  now  entirely  destroyed.  The  only  remains  of  the 
superstructure  that  can  be  identified  are  in  a  storeroom  north  of 
the  temple  of  Apollo.      They  consist  of   fragments    of    large 


128 


POMPEII 


Fig.  56. —  Plan  of  the  second  temple,  restored. 

A.  Steps.         B.    Portico.  C.    Cella. 

D.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  the  divinity. 

a.  Door  of  cella. 

b.  Floor  border  of  white  mosaic. 

c.  Pavement  of  colored  marbles. 

d.  Ornamental  centre. 


marble  columns,  nearly  thirty-two  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  an 
entablature  of  corresponding  dimensions. 

After  the  completion  of  the  temple  the  Pompeians  set  about 
rebuilding  the  colonnade,  on  a  scale  of  equal  magnificence. 
First  of  all  they  enlarged  the  court  by  removing  the  old  walls 

to  the  foundations, 
and  constructed 
new  outside  walls 
{a-b-c-d),  the  cor- 
ners of  which  form 
right  angles.  The 
wall  on  the  north 
side,  of  reticulate 
work,  can  be  distin- 
guished in  Fig.  55. 
That  on  the  east 
side  is  also  well 
preserved,  but  of 
that  on  the  south 
side  no  trace  remains.  The  deep  foundation  of  the  wall  on 
the  west  side  forms  the  farther  wall  of  the  present  Museum,  the 
roof  of  which  very  nearly  represents  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the 
ancient  court.  The  colonnade  was  to  be  single  on  the  north, 
double  on  the  east  and  west  sides.  The  principal  entrance 
was  at  the  northeast  corner  (K),  with  a  smaller  entrance  (L) 
at  the  end  of  the  narrow  street  south  of  the  Basilica. 

How  far  the  work  had  progressed  before  the  earthquake  of  the 
year  63  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  The  new  gutter  along  the 
front  of  the  colonnade  had  not  yet  been  laid,  but  the  foundations 
of  the  rows  of  columns  {e-f-g-Ji,  (-^'  f ,  g'^^')  were  for  the  most 
part  ready.  From  the  Corinthian  capital  and  fragments  of 
shafts  and  entablature  lying  about  the  court  it  is  clear  that  these 
members  were  fitted  and  in  place  when  they  were  thrown  down. 
Part  of  the  colonnade  was  therefore  finished.  It  was  in  two 
stories,  probably  without  an  intervening  floor,  like  the  porticoes 
in  front  of  the  Macellum  and  the  building  of  Eumachia.  Not  less 
than  three  hundred  marble  columns  must  have  been  required  to 
complete  the  work ;  undoubtedly  the  wall  back  of  the  colonnade 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   VENUS   POMPEIANA  129 

was  divided  off  by  pilasters  below  and  half  columns  above,  the 
intervening  spaces  being  filled  with  marble.  In  point  of  size, 
the  temple  with  its  court  formed  the  largest  sanctuary,  in  rich- 
ness of  materials  the  most  splendid  edifice  of  the  entire  city. 

The  great  earthquake  felled  to  the  ground  alike  the  finished 
temple  and  the  unfinished  colonnade.  But  the  Pompeians,  in 
their  time  of  trouble  least  of  all  disposed,  we  may  assume,  to 
forsake  their  patron  goddess,  soon  commenced  the  work  of 
rebuilding.  Postponing  the  renewal  and  completion  of  the  col- 
onnade as  of  secondary  importance,  they  cleared  away  the  debris 
of  the  temple,  and  on  the  podium  where  the  cella  had  stood 
constructed  a  temporary  place  of  worship,  a  small  wooden  build- 
ing strengthened  at  the  bottom  by  a  low  wall  around  the  outside. 
Then  they  proceeded  to  enlarge  the  podium  ;  the  third  temple 
was  to  be  even  more  imposing  than  its  predecessor.  The  old 
steps  were  removed  from  the  front.  The  existing  podium  was 
cut  back  five  Roman  feet  on  each  side,  and  four  inches  at  the 
rear,  to  form  the  core  of  the  new  podium  ;  on  all  sides  of  this 
a  massive  foundation  wall  was  commenced,  five  and  a  half  Roman 
feet  thick,  made  of  large  blocks  of  basalt  carefully  worked  and 
fitted.  A  similar  wall  was  carried  through  the  old  podium  (b-b'), 
to  serve  as  the  foundation  for  the  front  wall  of  the  cella.  The 
relative  size  of  the  component  parts  of  the  new  temple  is  thus 
clearly  indicated.  The  cella  was  to  extend  over  the  space 
b-c-c'-b',  the  portico  over  that  marked  a-b-b'  ;  how  far  the 
steps  were  to  project  in  front  is  uncertain. 

At  the  time  of  the  eruption  five  courses  of  basalt  had  been 
laid,  reaching  a  height  of  more  than  four  feet,  the  space  between 
the  core  of  the  old  podium  and  the  outer  wall  being  filled  with 
concrete  as  the  work  progressed.  On  the  north  side  of  the  court 
are  still  to  be  seen  a  number  of  blocks  of  basalt  not  yet  trimmed 
and  fitted,  just  as  they  were  abandoned  by  the  workmen  when 
the  work  was  stopped  forever. 


Vm 


I      I 


CHAPTER    XIX 

TNE   TEMPLE   OF  FORTUNA   AUGUSTA 

Passing  out  from  the  Forum  under  the  arch  at  the  northeast 
corner,  we  enter  the  broadest  street  in  Pompeii.  On  the  right 
a   colonnade  over  the   sidewalk   runs    along   the   front   of  the 

first  block,  at  the 
further  corner  of 
which,  where  Fo- 
rum Street  opens 
into  Nola  Street, 
stands  the  small 
temple  of  Fortu- 
na  Augusta.  The 
front  of  the  tem- 
ple is  in  a  line  with 
the  colonnade, 
which  seems  to 
have  been  designed  as  a  continuation  of  the  colonnade  about 
the  Forum ;  the  builders  apparently  wished  to  have  it  appear 
that  the  temple  was  located  on  an  extension  of  the  Forum  rather 
than  on  a  street.  The  colonnade  is  certainly  not  older  than  the 
earlier  years  of  the  Empire,  and  the  temple  dates  from  the  time 
of  Augustus. 

The  divinity  of  the  temple  and  the  name  of  its  builder  are 
both  known  to  us  from  an  inscription  on  the  architrave  of  the 
shrine  at  the  rear  of  the  cellar  J/.  Tiillius  M.f.,  d.  v.  i.  d.  ter., 
qui}iq\jiennalis\,  aiigiir,  t}'\_ibiiHUs'\  rnil\itiivi\  a  pop\jilo\  aedcvi 
Fortunae  AugustYac~\  solo  ct  pcq\2niia\  sua,  —  'Marcus  TulUus 
the  son  of  Marcus,  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority  for  the  third 
time,  quinquennial  duumvir,  augur,  and  military  tribune  by  the 
choice  of  the  people,  (erected  this)  temple  to  Fortuna  Augusta 
on  his  own  ground  and  at  his  own  expense.' 

130 


0      1    2     3     i     5     6     T     8     9    10 

Fig.  57. —  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta. 

A.  Altar.  C.    Cella. 

B.  Portico.  D.    Shrine  for  the  statue  of  the  divinity. 

1-4.    Niches  for  statues. 


thf:  temple  of  fortuna  augusta 


131 


Such  inscriptions  were  ordinarily  placed  on  the  entablature 
of  the  portico.  The  portico  of  this  temple,  however,  had  been 
thrown  down  by  the  earthquake  of  63,  and  had  not  yet  been 
rebuilt.  The  cella  may  have  been  damaged  also,  but  in  order 
that  the  worship  might  not  be  interrupted  the  shrine  was  re- 
stored ;  the  inscription  was  temporarily  placed  over  it. 

The  remains  of  the  walls,  columns,  and  entablature  make  it 
possible  to  reconstruct  the  edifice  with  certainty  (Fig.  58).     The 


Fig.  5J. —  leniple  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  restored. 


plan  (Fig.  57)  in  several  respects  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  from  which  the  architect  copied  the  project- 
ing platform  in  front  of  the  podium,  with  its  altar  and  double 
series  of  steps.  The  eight  columns  sustaining  the  portico  had 
Corinthian  capitals.  The  walls  of  the  cella  were  veneered  with 
marble.  In  the  shrine  at  the  rear  stood,  without  doubt,  the 
image  of  Fortuna  as  guardian  of  the  fortunes  of  Augustus  and 
protectress  of  the  imperial  family  (Fig.  59). 

There  were  also  in  the  walls  of  the  cella  four  niches  for 
statues,  of  which  two  have  been  found.  The  face  of  one,  a 
female  figure,  had  been   sawed  off  in   order  to  replace  it  with 


132 


POMPEII 


another,  which  has  not  come  to  Hght ;  the  features  of  the  other 
statue  were  said  in  the  reports  of  the  excavations  to  resemble 
those  of  Cicero,  but  the  resemblance  is  purely  fanciful,  sug- 
gested by  the  name  Marcus  Tullius  in  the  dedicatory  inscrip- 
tion. Both  statues 
were  of  persons  con- 
nected with  the  priest- 
hood, not  of  members 
of  the  imperial  family. 
Probably  statues  of 
the  latter  were  set  up 
elsewhere,  so  that  the 
cella  was  left  free  for 
less  important  person- 
ages. 

The  worship  of 
Fortuna  Augusta  was 
in  charge  of  a  college 
of  priests,  consisting 
of  four  slaves  and 
freedmen,  who  were 
called  Miiiistri  For- 
tuna e  All  gust ae,  — 
'Servants  of  Fortuna 
Ausfusta.'    Our  infor- 


Fig.  59. —  Rear  of  the  cella  in  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Au- 
gusta, with  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  restored. 


mation  in  regard  to  them  is  derived  from  five  inscriptions,  of 
which  two  were  found  in  the  temple,  the  others  in  different 
places ;  but  none  of  them  where  they  originally  belonged. 
These  all  relate  to  the  small  statues,  signa,  of  which  one  was 
set  up  by  the  college  every  year.  One  inscription,  of  the  year 
3  B.C.,  speaks  of  the  'first  servants  {nimistri  priini)  of  Fortuna 
Augusta.'  The  priesthood  was  therefore  estabhshed  in  that  year, 
and  the  temple  was  probably  built  only  a  short  time  before. 

In  donating  the  land  for  the  temple  Tullius  retained  the 
ownership  of  a  narrow  strip  of  irregular  shape  at  the  right. 
Here  a  rough  block  of  basalt  was  set  up  with  the  inscription  : 
J/,  Tiil/i  M.  f.  area  privata,  — '  Private  property  belonging  to 
Marcus  Tullius,  son  of  Marcus.' 


KEY    TO    PLAN    III 


A.  Portico  at  the  Entranxe  of 

THE  Forum  Triaxgulare. 

B.  Forum  Triaxgulare. 

1.  I.    Colonnade. 

2.  Promenade. 

3.  Doric  temple. 

4.  Semicircular   bench,  with    sun- 

dial. 

5.  Sepulchral  enclosure. 

6.  Altars. 

7.  Well  house. 

8.  Pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Mar- 

cellus. 

C.  Opex-air      Gymxasium  —  Pa- 

laestra. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Pedestal  with  steps  behind  it. 

3.  3.    Dressing  rooms. 

D.  Taxk  for  Saffrox  Water. 

E.  Large  Theatre. 

1.  Dressing  room. 

2.  Stage. 

3.  Orchestra. 

4.  Ima  cavea. 

5.  Media  cavea. 

6.  Summa  cavea,  over  a  corridor. 

7.  7.    Tribunals. 

F.  Small  Theatre. 

1 .  Dressing  room. 

2.  Stage. 

3.  3.    Tribunalia. 

K.    Citv  Wall.         L. 


G.   Theatre  Coloxxade.  used  as 
Barracks  for  Gladiators. 

1.  Passage  leading   from    Stabian 

Street. 

2.  Entrance. 

3.  Doorkeeper's  room. 

4.  Passage  to  the  Large  Theatre, 

walled  up. 

5.  Stairway    leading    down    from 

the  Forum  Triangulare. 

6.  Athletes'  waiting   room  —  Ex- 

edra. 

7.  Room  with  remains  of  weapons 

and  cloth. 

8.  Guard  room. 

9.  Stairs     leading     to    overseer's 

rooms. 
ID.  Kitchen. 
II.    Mess  room. 

H.   Temple  of  Zeus  Miltchius. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Altar. 

3.  Cella. 

4.  Sacristan's  room. 

I.    Temple  of  Isis. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Cella. 
Shrine  of  Harpocrates. 
Purgatorium. 
Hall  of  initiation. 

6.  Hall  of  the  Mysteries. 

7.  Priest's  residence. 

Foundatioxs  of  Steps. 


3- 

4- 
5- 


■m 


0           US 

50 

100                       iSO                     200 

gso 

300 

Li  i-J  ul 

1 

-1                            •                           1 

1 

Scale  of  English  Feet 

0               10 

UjuI 1 

20 

30 

iO              50 

1               1 

iOO 

) 

Scale  rf  Met-^'- 

PLAN    III.  — THE    FORUM    TRIANGULARE   WITH    ADJACENT   BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER    XX 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  NEAR  THE 
STABIAN  GATE—  THE  FORUM  TRIANGULARE  AND  THE 
DORIC  TEMPLE 

The  end  of  the  old  lava  stream  on  which  Pompeii  lay  runs 
off  into  two  points  ;  in  the  depression  between  them,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  the  Stabian  Gate.  On  the  edge  of  the  spur  at 
the  left  a  temple  of  the  Doric  style  was  built  in  very  early 
times.  The  descent  here,  toward  the  southwest,  is  so  sharp 
and  the  height  so  great  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  add  a 
wall  at  the  top  as  a  means  of  defence. 

The  sides  of  the  temple  followed  in  general  the  direction  of 
the  edge  of  the  cliff.  Raised  upon  a  high  foundation,  it  not 
only  dominated  the  plain  below  but  was  visible  also  from  the 
greater  part  of  the  city ;  glistening  in  the  sun,  it  became  a 
landmark  for  mariners  far  out  at  sea,  who  from  a  distance 
could  offer  greetings  to  the  gods  there  enshrined. 

In  the  second  century  B.C.  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
depression  back  of  the  Stabian  Gate  was  selected  as  the  site 
for  a  large  theatre  (E  on  Plan  III);  previously,  we  may  sup- 
pose, temporary  wooden  structures  had  answered  the  purpose. 
This  location  was  chosen,  in  accordance  with  the  Greek  custom, 
because  the  places  for  the  greater  part  of  the  seats  for  the 
spectators  could  be  easily  cut  in  the  natural  slope,  which  here 
had  the  shape  of  half  a  shallow  saucer;  a  superstructure  was 
necessary  only  for  the  upper  rows  of  seats.  The  architect,  if 
not  a  Greek,  was  certainly  of  Greek  training. 

South  of  the  theatre  an  extensive  colonnade  (G)  was  erected. 
It  was  intended  as  a  shelter  for  theatre-goers,  but  was  afterwards 
turned  into  barracks  for  gladiators. 

With  a  similar  purpose,  a  colonnade  of  the  Doric  order 
was  built  along  two  sides  of  the  triangular  level  space  about 

133 


134  POMPEII 

the  Greek  temple  (i).  In  front  of  the  north  end,  where  the 
two  arms  of  the  colonnade  meet,  a  high  portico  of  the  Ionic 
order  was  erected  (A)  facing  the  street,  thus  forming  a  monu- 
mental entrance  to  the  Theatre.  The  southwest  side  of 
the  area  was  left  unobstructed,  and  the  place,  by  reason  of 
its  shape,  is  called  the  Forum  Triangulare,  'Three-cornered 
Forum.' 

In  connection  with  the  building  of  the  Theatre  land  had  been 
expropriated  and  cleared  as  far  north  as  the  first  east  and  west 
street.  Here,  near  the  entrance  of  the  Forum  Triangulare,  a 
Palaestra  for  gymnastic  exercises  (C)  was  built,  with  funds  left 
for  public  purposes  by  a  benevolent  citizen.  Later,  probably 
not  before  the  time  of  the  Roman  colony,  a  temple  of  Isis  (I) 
was  erected,  adjoining  the  Theatre  on  the  northeast. 

Early  in  the  Roman  Period,  not  long  after  80  B.C.,  a  small 
roofed  theatre  (F)  was  constructed  east  of  the  stage  of  the 
Large  Theatre  and  of  the  area  at  the  rear. 

Stabian  Street  north  and  south  of  the  Small  Theatre  was 
lined  with  private  houses.  At  the  northeast  corner  of  the  block 
was  a  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius  (H),  seemingly  of  early  date, 
but  entirely  rebuilt  about  the  time  that  the  Small  Theatre  was 
erected. 

Part  of  the  columns  and  entablature  belonging  to  the  beau- 
tiful portico  at  the  entrance  of  the  Forum  Triangulare  have 
been  set  up  again  and  are  seen  in  our  illustration  (Fig.  60). 
The  brackets  projecting  from  the  rear  wall  were  probably 
designed  for  statuettes  or  vases.  When  the  wall  was  rebuilt, 
after  the  earthquake  of  63,  a  change  was  made  in  at  least  one 
particular.  The  small  doorway  at  the  middle,  now  at  right 
angles  with  the  wall,  formerly  passed  obliquely  through  it, 
opening  toward  the  end  of  the  promenade  which  was  laid  out 
in  front  of  the  colonnade  at  the  left.  This  promenade  (2  on 
Plan  III)  was  separated  from  the  area  of  the  Forum  by  a  low 
wall  ;  on  sunny  winter  days  it  must  have  been  the  most  fre- 
quented walk  in  the  city. 

Besides  the  small  doorway,  which  was  closed  by  a  latticed 
gate  hung  from  a  wooden  jamb,  there  was  at  the  left  a  massive 


PLATE    III.— THE    GREEK   TEMPLE   AND   THE    FORUM   TRIANGULARE. 
SEEN    FROM   THE   SOUTH.      RESTORATION    BY   WEICHARDT 


THE    FORUM     TRIANCiri-ARE 


^35 


double  door  with  strong  bolts,  inside  of  which  was  still  a  second 
door.  It  seems  odd  that  one  entrance  should  be  so  securely 
closed,  while  the  fastenings  of  the  other  were  so  light.  Ordi- 
narily, the  large  doors  must  have  been  kept  shut,  while  the 
small  entrance  was  left  open  for  everyday  use ;  but  when  there 
was  to  be  a  play  in  the  Theatre,  and  the  magistrate  who  gave 
the  entertainment  proceeded  from  the  Forum  with  a  retinue  in 
festal  attire,  then  the  great  doors  were  swung  back  in  honor  of 


Fig.  6o. —  Portico  at  tht-  entrance  of  the  Forum  Triangulare. 

the  occasion,  and  the  opening  of  them  formed  part  of  an  impres- 
sive ceremony. 

The  colonnade  within  contained  ninety-five  Doric  columns. 
It  w^as  only  one  story  in  height,  and  the  columns  for  this  reason 
are  more  slender  than  those  of  .the  same  order  in  the  Forum. 
The  entablature  varies  from  the  Doric  type  only  in  respect  to 
the  architrave,  which  consists  of  two  bands.  The  continuation 
of  the  colonnade  along  the  southwest  side  was  prevented  by 
the  nearness  of  the  temple  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff.  Here 
the  magnificent  view  over  the  plain  to  the  mountains  and 
across  the  Bay  was  unimpeded  ;  for  the  enjoyment  of  it,  two 
duumvirs  in  the  early  years  of  the  Empire  built  near  the  west 


1^6 


POMPEII 


corner  of  the  temple  a  semicircular  stone  seat,  scJioIa  (4  on  Plan 
III),  like  those  found  in  connection  with  tombs.  On  the  back 
they  placed  a  sundial  with  the  inscription  :  L.  Sepunius  L.  f. 
Sandiliaiius,  M.  Hcrcnnius  A.  f.  Epidianns  duo  vi?'\_i]  2.  d. 
scollani]  ct  horol\ogi}i})i\  d.  s.  p.  f.  c.  (for  dc  sua  pcciinia  faci- 
7indnni  ciirarnnt),  —  '  Lucius  Sepunius  Sandilianus  the  son  of 
Lucius,  and  Marcus  Herennius  Epidianus  the  son  of  Aulus, 
duumvirs  with  judiciary  authority,  caused  the  seat  and  the  sun- 


Fig.  61. — View  of  the  Forum  Triangulare,  looking  toward  Vesuvius. 

At  the  left,  remains  of  the  Doric  temple  and  of  the  altars  and  well  house  in  front  of  it ;  at 

the  right,  exterior  of  the  large  theatre. 


dial  to  be  made  at  their  own  expense.'  The  same  duumvirs,  as  we 
have  seen,  set  up  a  sundial  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of  Apollo. 
At  the  foot  of  the  middle  column  at  the  north  end  of  the  col- 
onnade is  a  broad  basin  of  Carrara  marble  resting  on  a  finely 
proportioned,  fluted  standard;  a  jet  of  water  fell  into  it  from 
the  end  of  a  pipe  which  passed  through  the  column  above.  A 
little  further  forward  is  a  pedestal  (8)  veneered  with  marble  on 
which  is  the  inscription:  M.  Claudio  C.f.  Marccllo patrono,  —  'To 
Marcus  Claudius  Marcellus,  the  son  of  Gains,  patron.'  Here 
stood  a  statue  of  Marcellus,  the  nephew  of  Augustus,  a  por- 
trait  statue   of   whom  we   have   already  found   in  the   imperial 


THE    DORIC   TEMPLE 


137 


chapel  of  the  Macellum.  The  reason  why  he  was  honored  with 
more  than  one  statue  is  clear  from  the  inscription  before  us  :  he 
was  patron  of  the  colony. 

The  surface  of  the  Forum  Triangulare  was  considerably  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  city  wall  (K)  south  of  the  barracks  of  the 
Gladiators.  It  seems  likely  that  a  flight  of  steps  led  down  to 
the  wall  between  the  barracks  and  the  long  colonnade,  as  seen  in 
Weichardt's  restoration  (Plate  III).  This  explanation  accounts 
for  the  existence  of  certain  remains  of  walls  (L  on  the  plan), 
the  purpose  of  which  is  otherwise  obscure. 


Fi 


Of  the  ancient  Doric  temple  but  little  remains  :  only  the  foun- 
dation, which  was  high  for  a  Greek  temple,  with  a  flight  of  steps 
in  front;  two  stumps  of  columns  and  traces  of  a  third;  four  cap- 
itals, and  portions  of  the  right  wall  of  the  cella.  The  plan  of 
the  cella,  however,  has  been  traced  by  means  of  excavations. 

The  foundation,  unlike  the  podiums  of  the  other  temples  at 
Pompeii,  was  built  up  in  a  series  of  broad,  high  steps.  The 
number  of  the  columns,  eleven  on  the 
sides  and  seven  in  front,  as  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum,  has  been 
calculated  from   the  distances  between 

the    stumps.     Of    those    in    front    two  cS 

4  f 
were  opposite  the  corners  of  the  cella, 

where  the  edges  of  the  flight  of  steps 

come  to  the  stylobate  (Fig.  62).     Only 

a  narrow  space  was  needed  between  the 

walls  of  the  cella  and  the  surrounding       ^    .  .    ,    ^     ,     . , 

"     4.    Semicircular  bench,  with  sundial. 

columns,  but  in  order  to  make  the  out-  5-  Sepukhrai  enclosure, 
ward  appearance  more  imposing  the  col-    '  we"house 
umns  were  set  as  far  out  as  they  would 

have  been  if  a  second  series  had  been  placed  within,  between 
them  and  the  cella ;  according  to  the  classification  of  Vitruvius 
the  temple  was  a  pseudodipteral.  On  account  of  the  interval 
thus  afforded  between  the  entrance  of  the  cella  and  the  col- 
umns in  front  (a  little  over  sixteen  feet),  it  was  thought  proper 
to  leave  the  number  of  columns  uneven,  so  that  one  stood  over 
against  the  middle  of  the  doorway 


g.  62. —  Plan  of  the  Doric 
temple  in  the  Forum  Trian- 
gulare. 

Colonnade. 

Outer  chamber  of  cella. 

Inner  chamber  of  cella. 


138 


POMPEII 


The  temjile  was  of  mixed  construction,  part  stone  and  part 
wood.  The  entablature  must  have  been  of  stone,  otherwise  the 
intercolumniations  would  not  have  been  so  narrow.  The  space 
between  the  entablature  and  the  cella,  however,  could  only  have 
been  bridged  by  means  of  timbers.  The  stone  used  was  the 
gray  tufa,  but  the  capitals  were  of  the  more  durable  Sarno  lime- 
stone. The  surface  was  coated  with  stucco,  which  in  part  at 
least  was  painted  in  bright  colors.  The  projecting  edge  of  the 
eaves  trough,  also  covered  with  stucco,  was  painted  red,  yellow, 
and  black,  and  ornamented  with  waterspouts  in  the  shajDC  of 
lions'  heads  alternating  with  rosettes. 

The  proportions  of  the  columns  (lower  diameter  6.07  feet, 
upper  diameter  3.12  feet)  with  their  flaring  capitals,  and   the 


Fig.  63. —  Tlie  Doric  temple,  restored. 

narrow  intercolumniations  (Fig.  63),  point  to  an  early  period; 
the  archaic  character  of  the  capitals  will  be  more  fully  appre- 
ciated if  they  are  compared  with  those  of  the  colonnade  of  the 
Forum  Triangulare.  In  respect  to  age  this  temple  ranks  with 
the  oldest  of  those  at  Selinunto ;  it  must  have  been  built  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C. 

The  cella,  as  our  plan  shows,  w^as  divided  into  two  chambers. 
In  the  inner  chamber  (3)  a  large  rectangular  flag  is  embedded 
in  the  floor  at  one  side  so  that  a  second  (indicated  on  the  plan 
by  dotted  lines)  must  have  been  near  it ;  the  supports  of  a  stone 
table  in  front  of  the  image  of  the  divinity  perhaps  rested  on 
them.  On  the  long  pedestal  at  the  right  of  the  cella  stood  a 
deer  of  terra  cotta,  above  life  size,  of  which  some  fragments 
have  been  found. 


THE    DORK"    ri:MPI,K  139 

Directly  in  front  of  the  temple,  at  the  foot  of  the  steps,  we 
find  a  monument  of  an  altogether  unusual  character.  The 
respect  with  which  it  was  regarded  is  evidenced  by  its  location 
in  the  place  ordinarily  occupied  by  the  principal  altar.  It  con- 
sists of  a  small  enclosure  of  peculiar  shape,  fenced  in  by  an 
outer  wall  and  a  low  inner  wall.  To  judge  from  its  form,  it 
must  have  been  a  place  of  burial ;  we  shall  find  a  tomb  later  the 
plan  of  which  is  quite  similar  (Plan  V,  right  side,  2),  and  it  is 
said  that  human  bones  were  found  here.  These  walls  are  not 
earlier  than  the  imperial  period,  but  they  must  have  taken  the 
place  of  an  older  structure  ;  for  the  altars  were  evidently  put 
over  near  the  east  corner  of  the  temple  (6  on  the  plan),  because 
the  place  which  they  would  naturally  have  had  was  already  occu- 
pied. For  a  time  —  how  long  it  would  be  idle  to  conjecture  — 
this  was  beyond  doubt  the  most  important  temple  of  the  city; 
the  placing  of  the  tomb  in  the  most  sacred  spot  in  front  of  it 
suggests  that  the  founder  or  founders  of  the  city  may  have  been 
buried  here,  and  afterwards  revered  as  heroes. 

Instead  of  a  single  altar  in  front  of  the  temple  there  are  three, 
all  made  of  blocks  of  tufa,  two  of  them  resting  on  a  single  foun- 
dation ;  the  third  is  built  on  the  ground  without  a  foundation, 
and  is  of  later  date.  One  altar  is  larger  than  the  other  two,  and 
its  surface  is  divided  into  three  parts. 

Not  far  from  the  altars  are  the  remains  of  a  small  round 
structure  (7  on  the  plan,  shown  in  Fig.  61)  about  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  The  roof,  supported  by  eight  Doric  columns,  was 
over  the  mouth  of  a  well,  which  had  been  driven  down  through 
the  old  lava  bed  till  living  water  was  found  for  cleaning  the  tem- 
ple and  for  rehgious  rites.  According  to  the  Oscan  inscription 
on  the  architrave  the  well  house  was  built  by  N.  Trebius,  chief 
administrative  ofificer  {mcddix  tiiticits)  of  the  city. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  what  divinities  were  worshipped 
here.  The  placing  of  two  altars  together,  one  being  divided 
into  three  parts,  and  the  addition  of  a  third,  seem  to  imply  that 
three  divinities  received  worship  in  common,  and  that  besides 
these  two  other  gods  were  honored  in  this  sanctuary.  The  terra 
cotta  deer  furnishes  a  clew,  but  is  not  decisive  evidence ;  deer 
were  sacred  to  several  divinities,  among  others  to  Apollo  and 


140 


POMPEII 


Artemis.  A  marble  torso  of  about  half  life  size,  found  on  the 
declivity  south  of  the  temple,  has  been  identified  with  some 
degree  of  probability  as  belonging  to  a  statue  of  Apollo.  Per- 
haps originally  Apollo  and  Artemis  were  honored  here,  and 
with  them  Leto  ;  but  in  an  Oscan  inscription  discovered  in  1897 
the  temple  seems  to  be  designated  as  belonging  to  Minerva 
(p.  240),  who  was  perhaps  also  worshipped  with  them. 

At  the  time  of  the  eruption  the  temple  was  in  ruins.  It  may 
have  been  in  this  condition  only  since  the  earthquake  of  63,  or 
for  a  longer  time.  That  the  worship  might  not  be  abandoned  a 
poor  shrine  was  built  among  the  ruins,  smaller  than  the  old 
cella  and  a  little  further  to  the  right ;  a  drum  of  a  column,  set 
up  on  the  flag  in  the  floor  of  the  cella,  served  as  a  pedestal  for 
the  image  of  the  divinity. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

THE  LARGE  THEATRE 

Performances  upon  the  stage  were  first  given  in  Rome  in 
the  year  364  b.c.  ;  a  pestilence  was  raging,  and  the  Romans 
thought  to  appease  the  gods  by  a  new  kind  of  celebration  in 
their  honor.  The  performers  were  brought  from  Etruria,  and 
the  exercises  were  limited  to  dancing,  with  an  accompaniment 
on  the  flute.  There  was  as  yet  no  Latin  drama.  The  first 
regular  play  was  presented  more  than  a  century  later,  in  240 
B.C.,  and  the  playwright  was  not  a  Roman  but  a  Greek  from 
Tarentum,  Livius  Andronicus,  who  translated  both  tragedies 
and  comedies  from  his  native  tongue.  The  next  dramatist  was 
a  Campanian,  Gnaeus  Naevius.  The  building  of  a  theatre  was 
not  yet  thought  of ;  a  temporary  wooden  platform  was  erected 
for  the  actors,  and  the  spectators  spread  themselves  out  on 
the  green  slope  of  a  hillside  facing  it. 

When  the  censor  Cassius  Longinus  in  154  b.c.  commenced 
the  erection  of  a  theatre  on  the  Palatine  hill  near  the  temple  of 
Cybele,  at  whose  festivals  plays  were  given,  the  ex-consul  Scipio 
Nasica  rose  in  the  Senate  and  in  a  speech  full  of  feeling  warned 
the  Romans  not  to  countenance  this  foreign  amusement,  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  sap  the  foundations  of  the  national  character. 
His  words  produced  so  deep  an  impression  that  the  Senate  not 
only  voted  to  pull  down  the  part  of  the  building  already  erected, 
and  to  refuse  permission  for  the  erection  of  similar  buildings  in 
the  future,  but  even  prohibited  altogether  the  renting  of  seats  at 
theatrical  representations  ;  Romans  who  wished  to  see  a  play 
must  remain  standing  during  a  performance,  or  sit  on  the 
ground.  Naturally  so  stringent  measures  could  not  long  remain 
in  force.  Nine  years  later  Mummius,  the  destroyer  of  Corinth, 
presented  dramas  in  connection  with  his  triumph,  and  put  up 

141 


142  POMPEII 

wooden  seats  for  the  spectators.  The  first  stone  theatre  in 
Rome  was  built  by  Pompey,  the  rival  of  Caesar,  in  55  B.C.  In 
Pompeii,  on  the  contrary,  a  permanent  theatre  had  been  erected 
at  least  a  hundred  years  earlier. 

The  Oscan  culture  was  so  completely  merged  in  that  of  Rome 
that  our  knowledge  of  it  as  an  independent  development  is 
extremely  slight ;  and  no  information  has  come  down  to  us 
regarding  the  history  of  the  native  drama.  From  literary 
sources  we  know  only  of  a  crude  form  of  popular  comedy  in 
which,  as  in  the  Italian  Commedia  dell'  arte,  there  were  stock 
characters  distinguished  by  their  masks,  —  Maccus  a  buffoon, 
Bucco  a  voracious,  talkative  lout.  Pappus  an  old  man  who  is 
always  cheated,  and  Dossennus  a  knave.  The  scene  of  these 
exhibitions  was  always  Atella,  the  Gotham  of  Campania,  whence 
they  were  called  Atellan  farces. 

The  Theatre  at  Pompeii,  however,  is  a  proof  that  as  early  as 
the  second  century  b.c,  in  at  least  one  Campanian  city,  dramatic 
representations  of  a  high  order  were  given.  Here,  perhaps,  as 
at  Athens,  they  were  associated  with  the  worship  of  Dionysus ; 
for  the  satyrs  were  companions  of  the  Wine-god,  and  the  head 
of  a  satyr,  carved  in  tufa,  still  projects  from  the  keystone  of  the 
arch  at  the  outer  end  of  one  of  the  vaulted  passages  leading  to 
the  orchestra.  Greek  verse,  and  native  verse  modelled  after  the 
Greek,  must  have  gained  a  hearing  at  Pompeii,  and  the  works  of 
Oscan  poets —  not  a  line  of  which  has  come  down  to  us  —  must 
have  stirred  the  hearts  of  the  people  long  before  Livius  Andro- 
nicus,  and  Naevius,  who  brought  inspiration  from  his  Cam- 
panian home,  produced  their  dramas  at  Rome. 

In  describing  the  Theatre  it  will  be  best  to  take  up  in  order 
the  three  main  divisions  common  to  Greek  and  Roman  buildings 
of  this  class  :  the  cavea,  the  large  outer  part  shaped  somewhat 
like  half  a  funnel,  containing  seats  for  spectators;  the  orchestra, 
the  small  semicircular  portion  enclosed  by  the  cavea,  with  an 
entrance,  parados,  on  either  side ;  and  the  stage,  facing  the  or- 
chestra and  the  cavea.  The  accompanying  illustrations  give  a 
plan  (Fig.  64),  and  a  view  of  the  ruins  in  their  present  condi- 
tion (Fig.  65);  the  exterior  as  seen  from  the  south  is  shown  in 
Figr.  61, 


THE    LARGE  THEATRE 


143 


The  cavea  afforded  seats  for  about  five  thousand  persons.  The 
greater  part  of  it,  from  the  orchestra  to  the  vaulted  corridor 
under  the  summa  cavea  (Fig.  64,  6),  lies  on  the  slope  of  the 
hill ;  the  floor  of  the  corridor  is  on  a  level  with  the  Forum 
Triangulare. 

The  seats  are  arranged  in  three  semicircular  sections.  The 
lowest,  ima  cavea  (4),  next  to  the  orchestra,  contains  four  broad 
ledges  on  which,  as  well  as  in  the  orchestra  itself,  the  members 
of  the  city  council,  the  decurions, 
could  place  their  chairs,  the  *  seats 
of  double  width.' 

The  middle  section,  viedia  cavea 
(5),  was  much  deeper,  extending 
from  the  ima  cavea  to  the  vaulted 
corridor.  It  contained  twenty  rows 
of  marble  seats  arranged  like  steps, 
of  which  only  a  small  portion  is 
preserved.  On  a  part  of  one  of 
these,  individual  places,  a  little  less 
than  16  inches  wide,  are  marked 
off  by  vertical  lines  in  front,  and 
numbered  ;  they  probably  belonged 
to  some  corporation  which  found 
it  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  con- 
fusion, to  assign  places  to  its  members  by  number.  In  Rome 
the  fourteen  rows  nearest  the  bottom  were  reserved  for  the 
knights.  Whether  a  similar  arrangement  prevailed  in  the  mu- 
nicipalities and  the  colonies  is  not  known,  but  if  so  the  number 
reserved  here  must  have  been  smaller. 

The  upper  section,  siiuinia  cavea  (6),  supported  by  the  vault 
over  the  corridor,  was  too  narrow  to  have  contained  more  than 
four  rows  of  seats. 

The  ima  cavea  was  entered  from  the  orchestra.  The  media 
cavea  could  be  entered  on  the  lower  side  from  the  passage 
{diaso)?ia,  pmecinctio)  between  it  and  the  ima  cavea,  which  at 
the  ends  was  connected  by  short  flights  of  steps  with  the 
parodoi  leading  outside ;  on  the  upper  side  six  doors  opened 
into  the  media  cavea  from  the  corridor,  from  which  flights  of 


Fig.  64. —  Plan  of  the  Large  Theatre. 

1.  Dressing  room.         5.    Media  cavea. 

2.  Stage.  6.    Summa  cavea. 

3.  (Orchestra.  7.    Tribunalia. 

4.  Ima  cavea.  8.    Tank  for  saffron 

water. 


144  POMPEII 

steps  descended  dividing  the  seats  into  five  wedgelike  blocks, 
cunei,  with  a  small  oblong  block  in  addition  on  either  side  near 
the  end  of  the  stage. 

The  corridor  was  accessible  by  four  doors,  one  from  the 
Forum  Triangulare,  another  from  the  open  space  between  this 
and  the  rounded  exterior  of  the  Theatre,  a  third  at  the  end  of 
an  alley  east  of  the  temple  of  Isis,  and  a  fourth  opening  from  a 
steep  passage  leading  up  from  Stabian  Street.  The  summa 
cavea,  which  for  convenience  we  may  call  the  gallery,  was 
entered  by  several  doors  (the  exact  number  is  uncertain)  from 
a  narrow  vaulted  passage  along  the  outside.  This  passage, 
however,  did  not  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  gallery,  but 
stopped  where  the  outer  wall  of  the  Theatre  joined  that  of  the 
Forum  Triangulare.  Here  a  stairway  led  to  it ;  there  was  a 
second  stairway  at  the  rear  of  the  Palaestra,  and  a  third  leading 
from  the  alley  east  of  the  temple  of  Isis  ;  the  three  are  shown 
on  Plan  III.  At  the  edge  of  the  Forum  Triangulare,  a  nar- 
row stairway,  built  in  the  thick  wall,  led  directly  to  the  gallery 
(Fig.  64). 

The  outer  wall  back  of  the  gallery  rose  to  a  considerable 
height  above  the  last  row  of  seats.  On  the  inside  near  the  top 
were  projecting  blocks  of  basalt  (seen  in  Fig.  65),  containing 
round  holes  in  which  strong  wooden  masts  were  set ;  from  these 
the  great  awning,  vclnni,  was  stretched  over  the  cavea  and 
orchestra  to  the  roof  of  the  stage,  protecting  the  spectators 
from  the  sun.  This  sort  of  covering  for  the  theatre  was  a 
Campanian  invention,  and  here,  where  the  cavea  opened  toward 
the  south,  was  especially  necessary.  In  the  Coliseum,  and  the 
well  preserved  theatre  at  Orange,  the  arrangements  for  fasten- 
ing the  masts  are  on  the  outside  of  the  wall.  The  upper  part 
of  the  wall  of  our  Theatre  has  been  rebuilt  in  modern  times,  and 
it  has  been  doubted  whether  the  blocks  of  basalt  and  the  pieces 
of  cornice  above  with  corresponding  incisions  are  ancient ;  the 
latter  surely  are  not  modern,  and  their  slightly  wedged  shape 
shows  that  from  the  beginning  they  must  have  been  on  the 
inside  of  the  wall. 

Near  the  front  of  the  orchestra  at  the  right  and  the  left  were 
small  rectangular  platforms;   one  is  shown  in  Fig.  65.     They 


THE    LARCrE   THEATRE 


145 


were  supported  by  the  vaults  over  the  entrances  (7,  7),  and 
were  reached  by  small  stairways  near  the  ends  of  the  stage. 
They  were  called  tribunals,  and  here,  as  in  Rome,  were  no 
doubt  reserved  for  the  seats  of  those  to  whom  special  honor 
was  paid.  One  was  set  aside  for  the  use  of  the  magistrate  who 
gave  the  play ;  in  Rome  the  vestal  virgins,  in  accordance  with 
a  decree  of  Augustus,  occupied  the  other,  and  in  Pompeii  their 
place  was  very  likely  taken  by  the  city  priestesses. 


Fig.  65. —  \'ie\v  of  the  Large  Theatre. 


The  shape  of  the  orchestra  is  that  of  a  semicircle  enlarged 
in  the  direction  of  tangents  at  right  angles  with  the  diameter ; 
a  complete  circle  could  be  inscribed  in  the  space.  It  was 
probably  never  used  for  a  chorus,  but  was  occupied  by  the  seats 
of  prominent  spectators,  particularly  the  city  officials  and  their 
friends.  It  was  entered  by  means  of  the  vaulted  passages  under 
the  tribunals. 

The  steps  leading  from  the  orchestra  upon  the  stage  (Fig.  65) 
can  be  explained  only  on  the  supposition  that  even  in  the 
Roman  period,  to  which  the  steps  in  their  present  form  belong. 


146  POMPEII 

actors  who  took  the  part  of  persons  arriving  from  distant  places 
came  upon  the  stage  through  the  orchestra.  In  the  niches  in 
front  of  the  stage,  as  we  learn  from  a  wall  painting,  sat  those 
charged  with  the  maintenance  of  order  in  the  Theatre,  two 
perhaps  in  the  rectangular  niches,  or  one  in  the  semicircular 
niche  in  the  middle. 

The  stage  is  long  and  narrow,  measuring  120  by  24  Oscan 
feet ;  the  floor  is  a  little  more  than  three  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  orchestra.  The  rear  wall,  as  in  ancient  theatres  gener- 
ally, was  built  to  represent  the  front  of  a  palace,  entered  by 
three  doors,  and  adorned  with  columns  and  niches  for  statues. 
In  each  of  the  short  sections  of  wall  at  the  ends  of  the  stage  is 
a  broad  doorway,  extending  across  almost  the  entire  space. 
The  long  narrow  room  behind  the  stage,  used  as  a  dressing 
room  {postscaeniiun),  was  entered  by  a  door  at  the  rear,  which 
was  reached  by  an  inclined  approach.  No  trace  of  the  roof 
of  the  stage  remains,  but  from  the  better  preserved  theatres  at 
Orange,  in  the  south  of  France,  and  at  Aspendus,  in  Asia 
Minor,  we  infer  that  it  sloped  back  toward  the  rear  wall.  The 
floor  was  of  wood. 

The  room  underneath  the  stage  was  divided  into  several 
parts.  Between  the  front  wall  and  that  just  back  of  it 
(seen  in  Fig.  65)  was  the  place  for  the  curtain,  which,  as  in 
Roman  theatres,  was  let  down  at  the  beginning  of  the  play, 
and  raised  at  the  end.  The  space  between  the  parallel  walls 
must  have  been  covered,  leaving  only  a  narrow  slit  for  the  cur- 
tain ;  otherwise  it  would  not  have  been  easy  to  go  upon  the 
stage  from  the  steps  in  the  orchestra. 

Underneath  the  place  for  the  curtain  is  a  low  passage,  in 
the  vaulted  roof  of  which  are  two  rows  of  holes,  a  little  more 
than  a  foot  square,  cut  in  blocks  of  basalt,  and  evidently 
designed  to  hold  upright  timbers.  This  passage  has  in  recent 
years  been  entirely  cleared.  In  the  floor,  directly  under  the 
openings  in  the  vaulted  roof  and  corresponding  with  them,  were 
square  holes.  In  those  nearer  the  front  of  the  stage  were 
remains  of  timbers  and  of  square  pieces  of  iron  fitted  to  the 
ends  of  these,  a  larger  and  a  smaller  piece  for  each  hole.  It 
seems  likely  that,  as  Mazois  suggested,  hollow  upright  beams 


THE    LARGE  THEATRE  147 

were  set  in  the  holes,  and  in  them  smaller  hollow  beams  were 
placed,  in  which  were  still  smaller  poles  or  iron  rods ;  by  the 
sliding  of  these  up  and  down,  the  long  horizontal  pole  on  which 
the  curtain  was  hung  could  be  raised  or  lowered.  The  use  of 
the  inner  row  of  holes  has  not  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

The  room  under  the  right  of  the  stage  is  so  low,  about  three 
feet,  that  it  could  not  have  been  available  for  any  purpose,  but 
that  at  the  left  is  higher,  and  was  used  for  theatrical  machinery, 
the  scanty  remains  of  which  arouse  our  curiosity  without  satis- 
fying it.  In  the  floor  are  set  two  oblong  blocks  of  limestone, 
about  four  feet  in  length.  Each  has  in  its  upper  surface  a  round 
hole,  between  two  and  three  inches  deep,  with  an  iron  socket, 
in  which  there  are  still  remains  of  an  iron  cap  once  fitted 
to  the  lower  end  of  a  vertical  wooden  shaft  that  turned  in 
it ;  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  —  assuming  that  the  blocks  are 
in  their  original  position  —  must  have  revolved  in  a  socket  fixed 
in  one  of  the  joists  of  the  stage  floor.  There  is  besides  on  the 
upper  surface  of  each  block  a  rectangular  depression,  and  on 
either  side  a  shallow  incision  ;  the  purpose  is  altogether  obscure. 
A  third  stone,  similar  to  these  two,  is  set  in  the  north  wall  of 
the  same  room,  and  opposite  it  was  fitted  another;  here,  then,  a 
horizontal  shaft  turned  ;  there  was  a  similar  pair  of  stones  at  the 
left  end  of  the  place  for  the  curtain.  These  arrangements 
suggest  the  crane-like  machine  by  which  floating  figures  were 
brought  upon  the  stage,  as  Medea  in  the  play  of  Euripides 
riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  and  the  familiar  dens  ex 
macJiina ;  such  machinery,  according  to  Pollux  (Onomast.  IV. 
128),  was  placed  on  the  left  side  of  the  stage. 

When  plays  were  presented,  the  front  of  the  palace  at  the 
back  of  the  stage  was  concealed  by  painted  scenery.  As  sev- 
eral pieces  might  be  produced  one  after  the  other,  it  was 
necessary  to  arrange  for  the  shifting  of  scenes.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  drawing  one  set  of  decorations  off  to  the  sides, 
thus  bringing  the  next  set  into  m\q.\\-  {seacna  dnctilis);  the  ends 
were  changed  by  turning  the  periactoi,  huge  three-sided  prisms, 
each  side  of  which  was  suited  to  a  different  scene  {scaena  ver- 
sdis).  In  spite  of  the  clumsiness  of  the  arrangements,  as 
contrasted  with  those  of  the  best  modern  theatres,  the  mount- 


148  POMPEII 

ing  of  plays  was  artistic  and  impressive,  and  compares  favorably 
with  that  of  Shakespeare's  time. 

The  only  allusions  to  matters  connected  with  theatrical  repre- 
sentations at  Pompeii  are  in  inscriptions  relating  to  actors,  as 
Sorex  (p.  176).  A  number  of  grafifiti  scratched  on  walls  in 
various  parts  of  the  city  mention  an  Actius  Anicetus,  whose 
name  is  given  in  full  in  an  inscription  found  at  Puteoli, 
C.  Ummidius  Actius  Anicetus.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  very 
popular  actor  of  pantomime,  at  the  head  of  a  troupe.  One  of 
the  inscriptions  reads:  Acti,  til^mor']  populi,  cito  rcdi,  —  'Actius, 
darling  of  the  people,  come  back  quickly  ! ' 

The  theatre  in  antiquity  was  by  no  means  reserved  for  scenic 
representations  alone.  It  was  a  convenient  place  for  bringing  the 
people  together,  and  was  used  for  public  gatherings  of  the 
most  varied  character.  In  the  theatre  at  Tarentum  the  memo- 
rable assembly  met  which  heaped  insults  upon  the  Roman 
ambassadors  and  precipitated  war  with  Rome.  At  Pergamos 
King  Mithridates  was  to  be  crowned  in  the  theatre  by  a  de- 
scending Victory,  but  by  some  mishap  the  wreath  fell  to  the 
floor,  an  omen  of  evil.  When  the  Ephesians,  stirred  up  by 
Demetrius  the  silversmith,  wished  to  take  measures  against 
Paul  and  his  companions,  "They  rushed  with  one  accord  into 
the  theatre."  On  such  occasions  we  may  suppose  that  the 
front  of  the  palace  at  the  rear  of  the  stage  served  as  a  back- 
ground without  other  decoration.  This  use  of  the  theatre  for 
general  purposes  was  a  Greek  rather  than  a  Roman  custom, 
but  the  theatre  itself  in  Italy  was  an  importation  from  Greece  ; 
and  we  may  suppose  that  the  theatre  at  Pompeii  was  on  more 
than  one  occasion  the  scene  of  notable  demonstrations. 

Our  Theatre,  as  is  evident  from  the  character  of  the  con- 
struction, in  its  original  form  belonged  to  the  Tufa  Period,  but 
was  rebuilt  in  Roman  times.  Some  particulars  in  regard  to  the 
rebuilding  are  given  in  an  inscription  :  M.  M.  Holconii  Riifns 
et  Celer  ciyptani,  tribiiiialia,  tJieatruni,  —  '  Marcus  Holconius 
Rufus  and  Marcus  Holconius  Celer  (built)  the  crypt,  the  tribu- 
nals, and  the  part  designed  for  spectators,'  that  is,  the  vaulted 
corridor  under  the  gallery,  the  platforms  over  the  entrances  to 
the  orchestra,  and  the  cavea. 


THE    LARGE   THEATRE  149 

The  two  Holconii  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  elder, 
Rufus,  was  duumvir  for  the  fourth  term  in  3-2  B.C.  The  work 
on  the  Theatre  was  probably  done  about  that  time  ;  for  soon 
afterwards,  before  his  fifth  duumvirate,  a  statue  in  his  honor 
was  erected  in  the  Theatre,  as  we  learn  from  an  inscription. 
Later,  in  13-14  a.d.,  the  younger  Holconius  also,  when  he  had 
been  chosen  quinquennial  duumvir,  was  honored  with  a  statue. 
The  masonry  of  the  corridor  and  of  the  exterior  arches  support- 
ing it,  as  well  as  of  the  tribunals,  well  agrees  with  that  in 
vogue  in  the  Augustan  Age ;  we  find  brick-shaped  blocks  of 
tufa  and  reticulate  work.  The  marble  seats  in  the  cavea  may 
be  assigned  to  the  same  period ;  in  the  original  structure  the 
benches  must  have  been  of  tufa.  About  the  same  time  the 
present  wall  at  the  back  of  the  stage  was  built,  in  the  place  of 
an  older  and  much  simpler  facade,  but  not  by  the  Holconii;  if 
this  also  had  been  rebuilt  by  them,  it  would  have  been  mentioned 
in  the  inscription. 

Possibly  the  tribunals  were  an  addition  due  to  the  Hol- 
conii. The  corridor  under  the  gallery,  however,  must  have 
been  built  in  the  place  of  an  earlier  corridor,  for  the  piers  on 
the  outside  rest  on  foundations  similar  in  character  to  the 
oldest  parts  of  the  building.  As  these  piers  served  no  other 
purpose  than  to  sustain  the  passage  opening  into  the  section 
of  seats  above  the  corridor,  this  must  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
original  plan. 

The  statues  of  both  the  Holconii  probably  stood  in  niches 
in  the  wall  at  the  back  of  the  stage.  Holconius  Rufus  was 
further  honored  with  a  monument  of  some  sort  in  the  cavea. 
The  lowest  seat  of  the  media  cavea  had  at  the  middle,  directly 
opposite  the  stage,  a  double  width  for  a  distance  of  about  five 
feet,  gained  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  next  seat  above. 
Here  was  an  inscription  in  bronze  letters:  M.  Holconio  M.  f. 
Riifo,  II.  V.  i.  d.  quinqnicns,  iterSjim^  q7nnq\jicimali\  trib\tmo\ 
i)iil\itnm~\  a  p\j)piilo~\,  flaniini  A7ig\jisti\  patr\ono\  colo\_niae\ 
d\j'C2iriomi7n'\  d\ccreto\  —  '[Dedicated]  in  accordance  with  a 
decree  of  the  city  council  to  Marcus  Holconius  Rufus  the  son 
of  Marcus,  five  times  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority,  twice 
quinquennial  duumvir,    military   tribune  by   the    choice   of  the 


I50  POMPEII 

people,  priest  of  Augustus,  and  patron  of  the  colony.'  The 
object  placed  here  was  of  bronze,  and  was  made  secure  by 
fastenings  set  in  twelve  holes ;  what  it  was  is  altogether  un- 
certain. The  ancients  had  the  custom  of  conferring  lasting 
honor  upon  a  deserving  man  after  death  by  placing  in  the 
theatre  a  seat  inscribed  with  his  name.  We  should  be  glad  to 
believe  that  a  'seat  of  double  width,'  biselliuDi,  the  use  of 
which  was  allowed  to  members  of  the  city  council,  was  placed 
here,  but  the  arrangement  of  the  twelve  holes  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  with  this  explanation. 

The  architect  employed  by  the  Holconii,  a  freedman,  was 
not  honored  with  a  statue,  but  his  name  was  transmitted  to 
posterity  in  an  inscription  placed  in  the  outer  wall  near  the 
east  entrance  to  the  orchestra :  M.  Artorius  M.  l'\jbcrtus'\ 
Primus,  arcJiitectns,  —  '  Marcus  Artorius  Primus,  freedman  of 
Marcus,  architect.' 

The  plan  of  the  Theatre  could  not  have  been  taken  from  a 
Roman  model ;  it  conforms,  as  we  should  have  expected,  to  the 
Greek  type.  In  the  Roman  theatre  the  orchestra  was  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle,  of  which  the  diameter  was  represented 
by  the  stage.  In  Greek  theatres,  on  the  contrary,  the  stage 
according  to  Vitruvius  was  laid  out  on  one  side  of  a  square  in- 
scribed in  the  circle  of  the  orchestra ;  the  orchestra,  as  shown 
by  existing  remains,  in  most  cases  was  either  a  complete  circle 
or  was  so  extended  by  tangents  at  the  sides  that  a  circle  could 
be  inscribed  in  it.  The  latter  is  the  case  in  our  Theatre,  of 
which  the  orchestra  has  essentially  the  same  form  as  that  of 
the  theatre  of  Dionysus  at  Athens. 

The  stage  falls  under  the  limit  of  height,  —  five  feet,  — 
allowed  by  Vitruvius  for  the  stage  of  the  Roman  theatre,  not 
to  mention  the  height  of  ten  to  twelve  feet  specified  for  that 
of  the  Greek  type.  The  reason  assigned  for  the  moderate  ele- 
vation of  the  Roman  stage  is  that  the  orchestra  was  occu- 
pied by  the  seats  of  senators,  whose  view  would  be  obstructed 
if  more  than  a  moderate  elevation  should  be  given  to  the  front 
of  the  stage.  The  orchestra  of  our  Theatre  was  apparently 
from  the  beginning  intended  for  the  use  of  spectators,  not 
for  a  chorus. 


THE    LARGE   THEATRE 


151 


The  conclusions  reached  by  Dr.  Winiam  Doerpfeld  in  regard 
to  the  stage  of  the  Greek  theatre,  if  borne  out  by  the  facts,  would 
necessitate  a  complete  abandonment  of  previous  views  on  the 
subject.  His  theory,  in  brief,  is,  that  not  only  the  chorus  but 
also  the  actors  went  through  their  parts  not  on  the  stage  but  in 
the  orchestra,  which  had  the  form  of  a  circle,  and  that  what  we 
are  accustomed  to  consider  the  front  wall  of  the  stage  was 
rather  the  rear  wall  of  the  platform  in  the  orchestra  on  which 
the  actors  and  chorus  stood,  this  wall  being  laid  out  on  a  tan- 
gent of  the  circle  and  having  a  height  of  twelve  feet,  as  we 
may  understand  from  Vitruvius  and  from  the  remains  of  the 
theatre  at  Epidaurus. 

The  main  reasons  advanced  in  support  of  this  theory  are  that 
the  platform  currently  regarded  as  the  stage,  which  according 
to  Vitruvius  and  the  existing  remains  was  hardly  more  than  ten 
feet  wide,  must  have  been  too  narrow  to  allow  free  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  actors,  and  that  the  height  above  the  orches- 
tra was  too  great  to  admit  of  the  close  relation  between  the  ac- 
tors and  the  chorus,  of  which  there  is  abundant  evidence  in  the 
extant  dramas.  According  to  Dr.  Doerpfeld,  the  stage  came 
into  existence  in  Italy  first,  and  in  the  Roman  period,  when  there 
was  no  longer  any  chorus  ;  a  platform  five  feet  high  was  built 
for  the  actors,  extending  to  the  middle  of  the  orchestra,  so  that 
this  now  took  the  form  of  a  semicircle  and  could  be  used  for  the 
seats  of  spectators. 

To  undertake  the  examination  of  Dr.  Doerpfeld's  theory  in 
detail  would  not  be  pertinent  here  ;  yet  we  cannot  bring  our 
description  of  the  Theatre  at  Pompeii  to  a  close  without  inquir- 
ing whether  this  structure,  which  is  perhaps  a  century  older 
than  the  oldest  Roman  theatre,  shows  any  trace  of  the  arrange- 
ment which  the  theory  assumes.  Unfortunately,  the  evidence  is 
not  conclusive  for  either  a  negative  or  an  affirmative  answer. 
Just  as  this  second  edition  goes  to  press  a  joint  investigation  of 
the  whole  matter  has  been  undertaken  by  the  author  and  Dr. 
Doerpfeld,  whose  work  is  being  facilitated  by  excavations.  It 
is  yet  too  early  to  anticipate  the  conclusions  to  which  the  evi- 
dence thus  gained  will  lead;  we  may  hazard  a  tentative  state- 
ment in  regard  to  only  one  or  two  points. 


152  .  POMPEII 

It  now  appears  probable  that  the  present  stage  was  not  con- 
structed at  the  same  time  with  the  other  parts  of  the  Theatre, 
but  that  it  is  a  later  addition.  There  is  no  trace  of  an  earlier 
stage,  and  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  this  was  built  against 
the  part  of  the  structure  designed  for  the  spectators.  We  might 
assume  that  this  earher  stage  was  placed  at  a  shght  distance  from 
the  other  parts  of  the  building,  and  that  the  entrances  of  the 
orchestra,  the  parodoi,  lay  between,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
the  outer  doorways  of  the  present  parodoi  —  notably  that  on  the 
west  side  with  the  head  of  a  satyr  on  the  keystone  —  unquestion- 
ably belong  to  the  original  structure;  and  we  should  not  be 
warranted  in  assuming  two  entrances  to  the  orchestra  on  each 
side.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident  that  the  construction  of 
the  tribunalia  must  have  involved  a  rebuilding  of  this  part  of  the 
Theatre,  and  it  is  possible  that  originally  passages  led  from  the 
outer  doors  of  the  present  parodoi,  not  to  the  orchestra,  but  to 
the  ranges  of  seats.  In  that  case,  assuming  that  the  stage  was 
slightly  removed  from  the  rest  of  the  structure,  we  may  freely 
grant  that  the  acting  may  have  gone  on  in  front  of  it  rather 
than  upon  it,  and  that  this  may  have  been  a  Greek  theatre 
according  to  Dr.  Doerpfeld's  view.  But  we  are  here  dealing  only 
with  possibilities;  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  further  investigation 
will  bring  to  light  data  for  a  final  solution  of  the  problem. 

In  the  open  space  between  the  Theatre,  the  Forum  Triangu- 
lare,  and  the  Palaestra  there  is  a  deep  reservoir  for  water  (D), 
square  on  the  outside  and  round  within.  It  was  evidently  used 
for  the  sprinklings,  sparsioncs,  with  saffron-colored  water,  by 
which  on  summer  days  the  heat  of  the  Theatre  was  mollified. 
That  such  sprinklings  were  in  vogue  in  Pompeii  is  known  from 
announcements  of  gladiatorial  combats,  painted  on  walls,  in 
which  they  are  advertised  together  with  an  awning  as  part  of 
the  attraction,  —  sparsiones,  vela  critnt. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

THE  SMALL    THEATRE 

The  names  of  the  builders  of  the  Small  Theatre  are  known 
from  an  inscription  which  is  found  in  dupUcate  in  different  parts 
of  the  building:  C.  Quinctiiis  C.  f.  Valg\jis\  M.  Porcius  M.f. 
duovir{i^^  dec\_Hrioniitn']  dec7'\_eto'\  tlieatrum  tecfitjn  fac'iiundinn'] 
locar\_)int\  eide7)iq\jie\  prob\anint\,  —  'Gains  Quinctius  Valgus 
the  son  of  Gains  and  Marcus  Porcius  the  son  of  Marcus,  duum- 
virs, in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  city  council  let  the  con- 
tract for  building  the  covered  theatre,  and  approved  the  work.' 
Later  the  same  officials,  when,  after  the  customary  interval,  they 
had  been  elected  quinquennial  duumvirs,  built  the  Amphitheatre 
'  at  their  own  expense  '  (p.  212). 

When  two  magistrates  set  up  an  inscription  in  duplicate,  ordi- 
narily the  name  of  one  appears  first  in  one  copy,  while  that  of 
the  second  is  put  first  in  the  other.  In  all 
four  inscriptions,  however,  two  at  the  Small 
Theatre  and  two  at  the  Amphitheatre,  Valgus 
has  the  first  place.  The  reason  in  the  case  of 
the  Amphitheatre  is  not  far  to  seek  :  Valgus 
was  the  man  of  means,  who  furnished  the 
money  for  the  building,  but  allowed  his  col- 
league and  friend  to  share  in  the  honor.  We 
may  also  believe  that,  while  the  Small  Thea- 
tre was  erected  '  in  accordance  with  a  decree 
of  the  city  council,'  and  hence  presumably  at 
public  expense,  a  part  of  the  funds  was  contributed  by  Valgus,  who 
on  this  account  received  honor  above  his  less  opulent  colleague. 

The  son-in-law  of  this  Valgus,  Publius  Servilius  Rullus,  has 
been  undeservedly  immortalized  by  a  speech  of  Cicero  in  oppo- 
sition to  a  bill  brought  forward  by  him  in  regard  to  the  division 
of  the  public  lands.     From  the  same  oration  we  learn  that  Val- 

153 


Fig.  66. —  Plan  of  the 
Small  Theatre. 

1.  Dressing  room. 

2.  Stage. 

3.  3.    Tribunals. 


154 


POMPEII 


gus,  a  man  without  scruples,  had  taken  advantage  of  the  reign 
of  terror  instituted  by  Sulla  to  acquire  vast  wealth,  particularly 
in  the  way  of  landed  property.  Among  his  estates  was  one  in 
the  country  of  the  Hirpini,  near  the  city  of  Aeclanum  (south  of 
Beneventum),  which  made  him  its  patron  and  for  which,  as 
shown  by  an  inscription,  he  repaired  the  walls  destroyed  in  the 
Civil  War.  He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  leading  men  in  the 
colony  founded  by  Sulla  at  Pompeii,  and  very  likely  sought  by 


Fig.  67. —  View  of  the  Small  Theatre. 


large  public  benefactions  to  cast  his  former  life  into  oblivion. 
The  Small  Theatre  must  have  been  built  in  the  early  years  of 
the  Roman  colony,  not  long  after  80  B.C. 

A  covered  auditorium  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  large 
unroofed  theatre  was  not  uncommon.  About  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  Pompeii  the  poet  Statins,  praising  the  magnifi- 
cence of  his  native  city  Naples,  speaks  of  '  twin  theatres  in  a  sin- 
gle structure,  one  open  and  one  roofed,' — geminam  moleni  nndi 
tcctiqiic  thcatri.     Our  only   clew  to  the   special   use  of  such   a 


THE   SMALL  THEATRE  155 

building,  however,  is  derived  from  the  one  erected  at  Athens  by 
Herodes  Atticus,  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  This  was  called  an 
Odeum,  that  is,  according  to  the  derivation  of  the  word,  a  room 
for  singing ;  musical  entertainments  were  held  there,  especially, 
we  may  assume,  those  musical  contests  which  had  so  important 
a  place  in  ancient  festivals.  The  purpose  of  the  roof  was  doubt- 
less to  add  to  the  acoustic  effect. 

The  plan  of  the  Large  Theatre  has  been  discussed  at  so  great 
length  that  a  few  words  will  suffice  in  relation  to  that  of  the 
smaller  structure  (Fig.  66).  That  it  might  be  possible  to  cover 
the  enclosed  space  with  a  roof,  the  upper  rows  of  seats  were 
reduced  in  length,  and  the  whole  building  —  cavea,  orchestra, 
and  stage  —  was  brought  into  an  oblong  shape  ;  only  the  orches- 
tra and  the  lower  rows  of  seats  in  the  cavea  form  a  complete 
semicircle.  The  pyramidal  roof  was  supported  by  a  wall  on  all 
four  sides ;  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  between  the  roof  and 
the  highest  row  of  seats,  there  were  probably  windows. 

The  seating  capacity  of  the  building  was  about  fifteen  hundred. 
The  lowest  section  of  the  cavea,  as  in  the  Large  Theatre,  con- 
sisted of  four  low,  broad  ledges  on  which 
the  chairs  of  the  decurions  could  be  placed. 
Above  these  is  a  parapet,  behind  which 
is  a  passage  accessible  at  either  end  by 
semicircular  steps.      The  broad  range  of 


seats  above  w^as  divided  into  five  wedge-     tig.  od.     bccuon  of  a  scat 

in  the  Small  Theatre. 

shaped  blocks  by  flights  of  steps  ;  only  two 

of  these,  however,  extended  as  far  as  the  passage  running  along 

the  upper  side,  which  could  be  reached  from  the  alley  at  the  rear 

of  the  building  by  means  of  stairways  connecting  with  outside 

doors. 

The  seats  were  of  masonry  capped  with  slabs  of  tufa  about 
seven  inches  thick.  They  had  depressions  in  the  side  and  in 
the  top,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  section  (Fig.  68). 
They  were  thus  made  somewhat  more  comfortable,  the  person 
in  front  being  less  subject  to  disturbance  from  the  feet  of  one 
sitting  on  the  next  seat  behind ;  a  saving  of  room  was  also 
effected  —  an  important  consideration  in  the  construction  of 
a  small  auditorium. 


156 


POMPEII 


Fig.  69.  — An  Atlas. 


The  tribunals  (3,  3)  differed  from  thiose  in  the  Large  Theatre 
in  that  they  were  shut  off  entirely  from  the  seats  of  the  cavea 
by  a  sharply  incHned  Avail,  and  were  entered  only  from  the  stage, 
by  means  of  narrow  stairways  ;  in  this  way  the  ex- 
clusive character  of  the  seats  was  made  still  more 
prominent.  Besides  the  platform  itself,  measur- 
ing only  about  11  by  9  feet,  three  seats  above 
each  tribunal  were  set  off  with  it  by  the  same  di- 
vision wall  and  were  available  for  the  occupants. 
The  sloping  wall  between  the  tribunal  and  the 
cavea  on  each  side  ends  with  a  kneeling  Atlas 
(Fig.  69);  large  vases  probably  stood  on  the  two 
brackets  supported  by  these  figures.  The  end 
of  the  parapet  on  either  side  is  embelhshed  with  a  lion's  foot  of 
tufa  (Fig.  70).  These  rather  coarse  sculptures  illustrate  the 
character  of  the  art  that  was  brought  to  Pompeii 
by  the  Roman  colony.  The  workmanship  is  by  no 
means  fine,  yet  the  muscles  of  the  figures  are  well 
rendered,  and  the  effect  is  pleasing. 

The  pavement  of  the  orchestra  (seen  in  Fig.  dj) 
consists  of  small  flags  of  colored  marble.  An  in- 
scription in  bronze  letters  informs  us  that  it  was 
laid  by  the  duumvir  Marcus  Oculatius  Verus  pro 
hidis,  that  is  instead  of  the  games  which  he  would 
otherwise  have  been  expected  to  provide. 

At  the  ends  of  the  stage,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Large  Theatre, 
there  were  two  broad  entrances.  The  wall  at  the  rear,  which 
was  veneered  with  marble,  had  the  customary  three  doors,  and 
in  addition  two  small  doors,  one  near  each  end.  The  long 
dressing  room  behind  the  stage  had  likewise  two  broad  entrances 
at  the  ends,  besides  four  at  the  rear.  Apparently  the  two  nar- 
row doors  near  the  ends  of  the  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  stage,  and 
the  two  doors  corresponding  with  them  at  the  back  of  the  dress- 
ing room,  were  for  the  use  of  those  who  had  seats  on  the  tribu- 
nals ;  they  could  thus  enter  and  leave  their  places  even  when  the 
large  side  doors  of  both  stage  and  dressing  room  had  been  shut 
—  as  undoubtedly  happened  immediately  after  the  procession 
i^pompa)  had  passed  across  the  stage. 


Fig.  70.  —  Orna- 
ment at  the 
ends  of  the 
parapet. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 


THE   THEATRE   COLONNADE.    USED   AS  BARRACKS  FOR 
GLADIATORS 


'Behind  the  stage,'  says  Vitruvius  (V.  ix.),  speaking  of  the 
arrangements  of  the  theatre,  '  colonnades  should  be  built,  that 
shelter  may  be 
afforded  to  spec- 
tators in  case  of 
rain  and  a  place 
provided  for  mak- 
ing preparations 
for  the  stage.' 

This  maxim  of 
ancient  archi- 
tects was  applied 
at  Pompeii  in  a 
generous  way ; 
in  connection 
with  the  theatres 
there  was  an  ex- 
tensive system 
of  colonnades. 
To  understand 
their  use  it  will 
be  necessary  first 
to  view  them  as 
they  were  in  the 
earlier  time,  and 
then  to  take  ac- 
count of  later 
changes. 

In  the  Oscan  Period,  and  afterwards  to  the  end  of  the  Re- 

157 


Vw 


71.  —  Plan  of  the  Theatre  Colonnade,  showing  its  relation 
to  the  two  theatres. 

1.  Passage  leading  from  Stabian  Street. 

2.  Entrance. 

3  Doorkeeper's  room 

4.  Passage  to  Large  Theatre,  walled  up. 

5.  Stairway  from  the  Forum  Triangulare. 

6.  Exedra  —  athletes' waiting  room. 

7.  Room  with  remains  of  costumes. 

8.  Guard  room. 

9.  Stairway  to  overseer's  rooms. 

10.  Kitchen? 

11.  Mess  room. 


158  POMPEII 

public,  when  a  performance  in  the  Large  Theatre  was  inter- 
rupted by  a  shower,  the  spectators  in  the  upper  seats  could 
take  refuge  under  the  colonnade  of  the  Forum  Triangulare ; 
those  below  found  shelter  under  the  rectangular  colonnade 
at  the  rear,  which  was  obviously  built  for  the  purpose,  and 
may  be  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  the  Theatre  Colonnade 
(Fig.  71).  It  contained  seventy-four  Doric  columns,  and  en- 
closed a  large  open  area.  The  main  entrance  (2)  was  near  the 
northeast  corner.  The  entrance  hall  on  the  side  of  the  colon- 
nade was  supported  by  three  Ionic  columns.  It  was  connected 
at  the  north  end  with  a  short  colonnade  on  the  east  side  of  the 
area  back  of  the  stage  of  the  Theatre ;  this  led  to  the  large 
door  at  the  east  end  of  the  stage  and  the  corresponding 
parodos  of  the  orchestra ;  the  wall  at  4  on  our  plan  is  a  later 
addition.  The  Theatre  Colonnade  must  have  been  used  also 
as  a  promenade  on  days  when  there  was  no  performance ;  it 
was  connected  by  a  broad  passage  (i)  with  Stabian  Street. 

This  colonnade  seems  too  far  away  to  have  served  as  a  place 
for  making  preparations  for  the  stage  ;  another  was  erected  for 
that  purpose.  At  the  northwest  corner  a  broad  stairway  leads 
down  from  the  Forum  Triangulare  (5  ;  cf.  Fig.  65);  from  the  foot 
a  small  and  inconvenient  flight  of  steps  leads  into  the  area 
at  the  rear  of  the  stage.  In  a  line  with  the  stairway  is  a  series 
of  small  rooms  opening  toward  the  south.  These  do  not  belong 
to  the  original  structure.  In  their  place  there  was  once  a  colon- 
nade, which  faced  the  north  and  connected  the  large  stairway 
with  the  short  colonnade,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to  be 
seen  on  the  east  side  of  the  area  ;  the  back  of  it  was  at  the 
same  time  the  back  of  the  north  division  of  the  Theatre  Colon- 
nade. There  was  thus  a  covered  passage  extending  from  the 
foot  of  the  stairway  along  two  sides  of  the  area  to  the  east 
entrance  of  the  stage  and  of  the  orchestra,  which  would  answer 
very  well  to  the  second  part  of  Vitruvius's  dictum  ;  but  it  had 
also  another  important  use. 

The  portico  of  the  Forum  Triangulare,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
at  the  same  time  the  monumental  entrance  of  the  Theatre,  and 
the  large  doorway  at  the  left  was  used  only  for  the  ceremonious 
admission  of  the  city  officials,  who  with  their  retinue  formed  a 


THE   THEATRE   COLONNADE  159 

procession  in  the  Forum  and  wended  their  way  hither  in  festal 
attire  in  order  to  open  the  performance  —  a  formahty  that  may 
be  compared  with  the  parade  with  which  the  Roman  games 
were  opened  at  Rome. 

The  route  of  such  a  procession,  after  entering  the  Forum 
Triangulare,  is  now  clear.  It  passed  along  under  the  colon- 
nade adjoining  the  Theatre,  beyond  the  entrances  to  the  upper 
portion  of  the  cavea ;  turned  and  descended  the  broad  stair- 
way (5),  proceeded  under  the  colonnade  along  the  south  and 
east  sides  of  the  area  behind  the  stage,  and  finally  came  upon  the 
stage  through  the  wide  doorway  at  the  east  end.  It  was  indeed 
possible  to  pass  beyond  the  stage  entrance  and  proceed  through 
the  parodos  directly  to  the  seats  of  the  orchestra  and  the  lowest 
section  of  the  cavea ;  but  it  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  fond- 
ness of  the  ancients  for  display  to  suppose  that  the  procession 
moved  across  the  stage,  receiving  as  it  passed  the  plaudits  of 
the  great  audience,  and  emerged  from  the  entrance  opposite 
that  by  which  it  came  in,  disbanding  in  the  court,  whence  the 
members  could  go  to  their  respective  seats.  We  need  not  here 
raise  the  question  whether  the  procession  passed  upon  the  stage 
behind  the  triangular  side  screens  {periactoi),  or  whether  these 
were  set  in  place  only  after  it  had  already  passed. 

When  the  colonnade  on  the  south  side  of  the  court  had  been 
replaced  by  rooms,  and  the  Theatre  Colonnade  itself  had  been 
transformed  into  barracks,  this  route  of  the  processions  was 
blocked.  They  could  still  pass  down  the  street  in  front  of  the 
temple  of  Isis,  turn  into  Stabian  Street,  and  reach  the  stage 
through  the  passage  at  the  rear  of  the  Small  Theatre ;  but  it 
does  not  seem  probable  that  they  followed  this  course,  for  the 
reason  that  there  are  three  large  stepping  stones  in  the  street 
before  one  comes  to  the  entrance  of  the  passage  ;  these  would 
have  proved  a  serious  obstruction,  and  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  removed  had  the  processions  gone  this  way. 

We  may  rather  believe  that  before  the  usual  route  was  closed 
the  processions  themselves  had  been  given  up.  They  were  still 
in  vogue,  however,  when  the  Small  Theatre  was  built ;  other- 
wise the  purpose  of  the  wide  entrances  at  the  ends  of  the  stage 
and  of  the  room  back  of  it  is  not  clear.     Moreover  the  sidewalk 


i6o  POMPEII 

in  front  of  the  Small  Theatre,  on  Stabian  Street,  is  of  an  alto- 
gether unusual  width,  and  was  apparently  covered  by  a  portico. 
We  infer  that  the  procession  to  this  theatre  entered  at  the  west 
end  of  the  stage,  and  passed  out  at  the  east  end ;  since  it  could 
not  disperse  on  the  street,  it  would  turn  where  the  sidewalk  was 
broadest,  go  back  through  the  room  at  the  rear  of  the  stage 
into  the  court,  and  there  disband. 

The  discontinuance  of  the  processions  must  then  be  assigned 
to  the  period  between  the  building  of  the  Small  Theatre  and 
the  changing  over  of  the  Theatre  Colonnade  into  barracks,  which, 
to  judge  from  the  masonry  and  the  remains  of  the  decoration, 
did  not  take  place  before  the  time  of  Nero.  The  processions 
were  abandoned  either  in  the  troubled  period  of  the  Civil  Wars, 
or  in  the  early  years  of  the  Empire ;  if  in  the  latter  period,  their 
discontinuance  may  have  been  due  to  legislation  connected  with 
the  reorganization  of  the  Empire  under  Augustus,  or  to  the 
overshadowing  of  them  by  more  imposing  ceremonies  intro- 
duced in  connection  with  the  religious  festivals. 

Our  information  in  regard  to  the  later  use  of  the  Theatre 
Colonnade  is  indeed  meagre ;  not  a  single  inscription  bearing 
upon  it  has  been  found.  Yet  when  we  take  into  account  the 
changes  that  were  made  in  it,  and  the  objects  found  there,  the 
supposition  that  it  was  turned  into  barracks  for  gladiators  in 
the  time  of  the  Early  Empire,  and  so  used  till  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  is  seen  to  harmonize  with  almost  all  the  facts. 

First,  rooms  were  built  on  all  sides  behind  the  colonnade  ;  on 
the  north  side  they  took  the  place  of  the  south  arm  of  the  colon- 
nade in  the  area  back  of  the  stage.  They  were  in  two  series, 
one  above  the  other ;  the  upper  rooms  were  entered  from  a  low 
wooden  gallery  accessible  by  three  stairways.  They  could  not 
have  been  intended  for  shops  ;  they  were  too  small,  measuring 
on  the  average  hardly  more  than  twelve  feet  square,  and  the 
doors  were  too  narrow.  There  were  no  doors  opening  from  one 
room  into  the  other.  Both  lower  and  upper  rooms,  we  may 
conclude,  were  used  for  men's  quarters. 

In  the  middle  of  the  south  side  a  large  room  was  left,  with 
the  front  open  toward  the  area,  an  exedra  (6).  On  the  east 
side  was  a  still  larger  room  the  front  of  which  is  divided  off 


THE   THEATRE    COLONNADE  i6i 

by  pillars  ;  other  rooms  open  from  it,  and  among  them  is  one 
(lo)  with  several  hearths,  evidently  intended  for  a  mess  kitchen, 
if  the  hearths  are  ancient ;  they  may  be  modern.  Over  these 
rooms  was  a  second  story,  reached  by  a  broad  stairway  (9). 

The  immediate  connection  of  the  colonnade  with  the  area 
behind  the  stage  was  now  cut  off  by  a  wall  (4) ;  there  was  left 
only  a  small  door  in  the  corner,  which  could  be  readily  fastened. 
The  entrance  from  the  passage  leading  to  Stabian  Street  (2) 
was  provided  with  doors  and  placed  under  the  control  of  a 
guard,  for  whom  a  special  room  was  built  at  one  side  (3). 
There  was  a  third  entrance,  narrow  and  easily  closed,  at  the 
northwest  corner,  where  a  flight  of  steps  connected  the  foot  of 
the  broad  stairway  (5)  with  the  landing  of  the  stairs  leading  to 
the  wooden  gallery. 

Thus  a  complete  transformation  was  effected.  The  prome- 
nade for  theatre-goers  had  become  barracks,  with  a  great  number 
of  cell-like  rooms,  a  mess  kitchen,  and  narrow,  guarded  entrances. 
Soldiers,  however,  could  not  have  been  kept  here  ;  in  the  period 
to  which  the  rebuilding  belongs,  garrisons  were  not  stationed  in 
the  cities  of  Italy  except  the  Capital.  On  the  other  hand,  gladi- 
atorial combats  in  Pompeii  were  so  frequent,  and  on  so  large  a 
scale,  that  a  special  building  for  the  housing  and  guarding  of 
gladiators  would  seem  to  have  been  a  necessity  ;  such  a  building 
would  naturally  have  been  erected  by  the  city  and  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  those  who  gave  the  games.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Augustus,  Aulus  Clodius  Flaccus  brought  forward  forty  pairs 
of  gladiators  in  a  single  day,  and  on  various  occasions  afterwards 
as  many  as  thirty  pairs  were  engaged.  How  well  the  colonnade 
was  now  suited  for  gladiators'  quarters  may  be  seen  from  a 
glance  at  the  plan.  The  area  would  serve  as  a  practice  court, 
the  exedra  on  the  south  side  (6),  protected  from  the  sun,  as  the 
station  for  the  trainers  and  lounging  room  for  men  awaiting  their 
turn  ;  the  mess  room  would  be  the  large  apartment  adjoining  the 
kitchen  (11),  while  the  quarters  of  the  chief  trainer,  lanista,  and 
his  assistants,  would  be  in  the  second  story,  reached  by  the  broad 
stairway  (9). 

The  small  rooms  were  poorly  decorated,  in  the  fourth  style. 
There  were  better  paintings  only  in  the  exedra.     On  the  rear 


l62 


POMPEII 


wall  of  this  room  was  the  oft  repeated  group  of  Mars  and  Venus; 
on  the  side  walls,  gladiatorial  weapons  were  represented,  piled 
up  in  heaps,  after  the  manner  of  trophies,  about  eight  feet  high. 
The  reference  to  the  purpose  of  the  building,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  paintings  in  the  Macellum,  is  obvious.  The  columns  about 
the  area  were  originally  white;  after  the  rebuilding  the  unfluted 
lower  part  was  painted  red,  the  upper  part  yellow.  Four  col- 
umns, however,  two  at  the  middle  of  the  east  side,  and  the  two 
opposite  them  on  the  west  side,  were  painted  blue,  probably  to 
serve  as  bounds  in  marking  off  the  area  for  athletic  exercises. 

The  objects  found  in  the  barracks  are  recorded  in  the  journal 
of  the  excavations.  They  indicate  that  at  the  time  of  the  erup- 
tion the  rooms  were  occupied.  Everything 
of  value  was  removed  from  those  on  the  north 
side  by  the  survivors,  but  the  south  half  was 
apparently  left  undisturbed,  and  has  yielded 
a  rich  harvest. 

In  ten  rooms  the  excavators  found  a  great 
quantity  of  weapons  of  the  kinds  used  by 
gladiators,  including  fifteen  helmets,  a  shield, 
greaves  (Fig.  72),  several  broad  belts 
trimmed  with  metal,  and  a  couple  of  armlets ; 
there  were  more  than  a  hundred  scales  of  horn 
belonging  to  a  coat  of  mail,  and  a  half  dozen 
shoulder  protectors,  galcri,  which  the  net 
fighter,  rctiarius,  who  carried  no  shield  and 
was  armed  only  with  a  net  and  a  trident,  wore 
on  his  left  shoulder.  The  weapons  were 
mostly  for  defence,  but  remains  of  a  few 
offensive  weapons  were  found,  as  the  head 
of  a  lance,  a  sword,  and  a  couple  of  daggers. 
In  the  same  room  Avith  the  daggers  and  the 
sword  (perhaps  7)  were  the  remains  of  two 
wooden  chests  containing  cloth  with  gold  thread  ;  this  may  have 
been  used  in  gladiators'  costumes. 

The  helmets  are  characteristic  (Fig.  73).  They  are  furnished 
with  a  visor,  and  part  of  them  have  a  broad  rim.  richly  orna- 
mented with  reliefs  ;  their  shape  corresponds  exactly  with  that 


Fig.  72.  —  A  gladiator's 
greave. 


\ 


THE    THEATRE    COLONNADE 


163 


of  the  helmets  seen  in  paintings  and  reliefs  representing  gladia- 
torial combats.  The  shield,  which  is  round  and  only  about 
sixteen  inches  in  diameter,  would  have  been  quite  useless  in 
military  service.  In  a  room  under  the  stairs  the  skeleton  of  a 
horse  was  found,  with  remains  of  trappings  richly  mounted  with 
bronze ;  one  class  of  gladiators,  the  equites,  fought  on  horse- 
back. 

One  of  the  small  rooms  on  the  west  side  (8)  was  used  as 
a  guard  room.  Here  were  the  stocks,  the  remains  of  which  are 
shown  in  Fig.  74  ;  they  were  fastened 
to  a  board.  At  one  end  of  the  under 
piece  was  a  lock,  by  which  the  bar 
passed  through  the  rings  could  be 
made  secure.  The  men  confined  had 
the  choice  of  lying  down  or  sitting  in 
an  uncomfortable  position.  The  four 
persons  whose  skeletons  were  found 
in  this  room,  however,  were  not  in 
the  stocks  at  the  time  of  the  erup- 
tion. That  such  means  of  discipline 
should  be  employed  in  controlling 
gladiators    is    entirely    consistent    with    ancient    methods. 

Besides  these  finds,  there  were  others  not  so  easily  explained. 
In  the  two  rooms  in  which  the  spearhead  and  the  other  offen- 
sive weapons  were  found,  there  were  eighteen  skeletons,  among 
them  that  of  a  woman  richly  adorned  with  gold  jewelry ;  she 


Fig.  73.  —  A  gladiator's  helmet. 


Fig.  74. —  Remains  of  stocks  found  in  the  guard  room  of  the  barracks. 


had  a  necklace  with  emeralds,  earrings,  and  two  armbands,  be- 
sides rings  and  other  ornaments,  and  in  a  casket  a  cameo,  the 
elaborate  setting  of  which  is  in  part  preserved.     In  a  room  near 


i64  POMPEII 

the  southwest  corner  the  bones  of  a  new-born  infant  were  found 
in  an  earthen  jar.  A  number  of  weights  also  were  discovered, 
and  vessels  of  terra  cotta  and  glass ;  in  three  rooms  there  were 
more  than  six  dozen  small  saucers.  Were  the  barracks  wholly 
given  up  to  gladiators  at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  or  were  some 
other  persons  allowed  to  have  quarters  here,  perhaps  some  of 
those  whose  houses  had  been  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  63 
and  had  not  been  rebuilt .-'  A  certain  conclusion  cannot  be 
reached. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE  PALAESTRA 


J.  75. —  Plan  of  the 
Palaestra. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Pedestal. 

3.  Dressing  rooms. 


The  oblong  court  north  of  the  Large  Theatre,  between  the 
entrance  of  the  Forum  Triangulare  and  the  temple  of  Isis,  is 
the  Palaestra.  Originally,  the  enclosed  area  was  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnade,  with  ten  columns  on 
the  sides  and  five  at  each  end ;  but  at  a  com- 
paratively late  period,  probably  after  the  earth- 
quake of  63,  the  columns  at  the  east  end  were 
removed  and  the  space  thus  gained  was  added 
to  the  temple  of  Isis. 

A  number  of  the  columns  on  the  other  three 
sides  are  still  standing.  They  are  Doric  but  of 
slender  proportions,  the  height,  10^  feet,  be- 
ing equal  to  eight  diameters,  while  the  intercolumniations  meas- 
ure about  nine  feet.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  columns  carried 
a  complete  entablature;  more  likely  the  roof  rested  directly  on  a 
wooden  architrave. 

The  building  clearly  dates  from  the  pre-Roman  period.  The 
columns  are  of  tufa  coated  with  stucco,  the  dimensions  of  the 
colonnade  (90  by  36  Oscan  feet)  reduce  to  the  early  standard  of 
measurement ;  and  an  Oscan  inscription  was  found  here  which 
says  that  the  building  was  erected  by  the  Quaestor  Vibius 
Vinicius,  with  money  which  Vibius  Adiranus  had  left  by  will  to 
the  Pompeian  youth.  The  translation  of  the  word  verciiai,  '  to 
the  youth,'  otherwise  doubtful,  is  confirmed  by  various  facts 
which  indicate  that  the  building  was  intended  as  a  small 
palaestra  or  open-air  gymnasium  for  boys. 

While  the  Palaestra  had  its  original  length,  the  entrance, 
which  is  now  nearer  the  east  end,  was  at  the  middle  of  the 
north  side.  Opposite  it,  near  the  colonnade  on  the  south  side, 
is  a  pedestal  of  tufa,  before  which  stands  a  small  table  of  the 

16^ 


sjuy 


i66 


POMPEII 


same  stone  (Fig.  yG).  The  pedestal  is  reached  by  narrow 
steps.  Here  stood  a  statue  of  the  patron  divinity  of  the  Palaes- 
tra. When  an  athletic  contest  was  held,  the  wreath  intended 
for  the  victor  was  laid  on  the  stone  table  before  the  god  ;  after 
the  award  had  been  made,  the  successful  contestant  took  up  the 
wreath  and  dedicated  it  to  the  divinity  by  mounting  the  steps 
and  placing  it  on  the  head  of  the  statue.  It  is  evident  from  the 
height  of  the  steps  that  the  contestants  were  boys,  not  men. 


Fig.  76.  —  View  of  the  Palaestra,  with  the  pedestal,  table,  and  step.s. 


On  the  pedestal  was  undoubtedly  a  statue  of  Hermes,  but  mA 
of  the  type  which  we  have  already  met  with  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo  (p.  88),  and  shall  find  later  in  the  palaestra  of 
the  Stabian  Baths  (p.  200);  a  base  of  this  sort  can  hardly  have 
been  intended  for  a  herm.  No  trace  of  the  missing  statue  has 
been  discovered. 

Another  statue  stood  at  the  foot  of  one  of  the  columns  on  the 
south  side.     It  is  a  copy  of  the  doryphorus  of  Polyclitus,  and  is 


THE    PALAESTRA 


167 


now  in  the  Naples  Museum  (Fig.  77).  Though  it  has  been  re- 
stored, there  seems  no  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  restoration 
is  incorrect,  and  that  the  figure  is  really  a  Hermes,  having  orig- 
inally carried  on  the  left  shoulder  a  herald's  staff  with  entwined 
snakes,  caducciis,  instead  of  a  spear. 
For  the  adornment  of  a  place  devoted 
to  athletic  exercises  nothing  could 
have  been  more  appropriate  than  a 
copy  of  the  doryphorus  as  an  ideal 
of  youthful  strength,  of  harmonious 
physical  development;  and  the  Elder 
Pliny  bears  witness  (N.  H.  XXXIV.  v. 
18),  that  it  was  customary  to  set  up 
such  statues  in  a  palaestra.  This 
figure  had  no  pedestal ;  it  stood  on 
the  ground,  a  man  among  men. 

At  the  west  end  of  the  court  were 
dressing  rooms  where  the  boys,  be- 
fore exercising,  could  anoint  them- 
selves and  afterwards  could  remove 
the  oil  and  dirt  with  the  strigil ;  such 
a  dressing  room  in  connection  with 
a  bath  was  called  a  destrictarium. 
Water  was  brought  into  the  court  by 
a  lead  pipe,  which  passed  through 
one  of  the  columns  at  the  right  of 
the  entrance  and  threw  a  jet  either 

into  a  basin  standing  below  or  into  the  gutter  in  front  of  the 
colonnade. 

It  would  be  of  interest  to  know  what  athletic  exercises  were 
practised  in  the  Palaestra ;  but  apart  from  the  pedestal  with  its 
steps  and  table  no  characteristic  remains  were  found  here.  The 
exercises  in  the  Roman  period  undoubtedly  differed  somewhat 
from  those  practised  at  the  time  when  the  building  was  erected, 
when  the  Greek  system  was  everywhere  in  vogue. 


F'g-  IT-  —  Doryphorus.      Statue 
found  in  the  Palaestra. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

THE   TEMPLE   OF  LSIS 

The  loftiest  and  purest  religious  conceptions  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  were  embodied  in  the  myth  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  which 
in  the  third  millennium  B.C.  had  already  become  the  basis  of 
a  firmly  established  cult.  These  conceptions  approached  the 
monotheistic  idea  of  an  omnipresent  god,  and  with  them  was 
associated  a  belief  in  a  blessed  immortality.  Isis  was  the  god- 
dess of  heaven,  and  Osiris  was  the  Sun-god,  her  brother  and 
husband,  who  is  slain  at  evening  by  his  brother  Set, — the  Greek 
Typhon,  —  ruler  of  darkness.  Their  child  Horus,  also  called 
Harpocrates,  born  after  the  father's  death,  is  the  fresh  sun  of 
the  new  day,  the  successor  and  avenger  of  his  father,  the  con- 
queror of  Set ;  he  becomes  a  new  Osiris,  while  the  father,  ever 
blessed,  rules  in  the  realm  of  the  dead,  the  kingdom  of  the 
West.  Man,  the  followers  of  Isis  taught,  is  an  incarnation  of 
deity,  whose  destiny  is  also  his.  He  is  himself  an  Osiris,  and 
will  enter  upon  a  better  state  of  existence  beyond  the  grave  if 
a  favorable  judgment  is  passed  upon  him  in  the  trial  given  to 
the  dead. 

The  worship  of  Isis,  associated  with  Mysteries  from  an  early, 
period,  was  reorganized  by  the  first  Ptolemy  with  the  help  of 
Manetho,  an  Egyptian  priest,  and  Timotheus,  a  Greek  skilled 
in  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  The  purpose  of  the  king  w^as  to 
unite  his  Egyptian  and  Greek  subjects  in  one  faith,  and  the 
effort  was  more  successful  than  might  have  been  anticipated. 
In  its  new  Alexandrian  form  the  worship  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  or 
Serapis,  as  the  latter  divinity  was  now  called,  spread,  not  only 
over  all  Egypt,  but  also  over  the  other  countries  in  the  East 
into  which  Greek  culture  had  penetrated,  and  soon  made  its 
way  to  Italy  and  the  West. 

Various  causes  contributed  to  the  rapid  extension  of  the  cult. 

168 


THE   TEMPLP:    of    ISIS  169 

It  had  the  charm  of  something  foreign  and  full  of  mystery. 
Its  doctrine,  supported  by  the  prestige  of  immemorial  antiquity, 
successfully  opposed  the  mutually  destructive  opinions  of  the 
philosophers,  while  at  the  same  time  its  conception  of  deity  was 
by  no  means  inconsistent  with  philosophic  thought ;  and  it 
brought  to  the  initiated  that  expectation  of  a  future  life  to 
which  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  owed  their  attractive  power. 
The  ascetic  side  of  the  worship,  too,  with  its  fastings  and  absti- 
nence from  the  pleasures  of  sense,  that  the  soul  might  lose 
itself  in  the  mystical  contemplation  of  deity,  had  a  fascination 
for  natures  that  were  religiously  suscej^tible ;  and  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Mysteries,  the  representation  of  the  myth  of  Isis  in 
pantomime  with  a  musical  accompaniment,  appealed  powerfully 
to  the  imagination.  The  cult  also  possessed  elements  that 
brought  it  nearer  to  the  needs  of  the  multitude.  The  activ- 
ities of  the  Egyptian  divinities  were  not  confined  to  the  other 
world ;  their  help  might  be  sought  in  the  concerns  of  this  life. 
Thus  the  chief  priest  could  say  to  Apuleius  that  Isis  sum- 
moned her  elect  to  consecrate  themselves  to  her  service  only 
when  the  term  of  life  allotted  to  them  had  really  expired,  and 
that  she  lengthened  their  tale  of  years,  so  that  all  of  life 
remaining  was  a  direct  gift  from  the  hands  of  the  goddess. 
The  priests  of  Isis  were  looked  upon  as  experts  in  astrology, 
the  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  the  conjuring  of  spirits. 

A  college  of  the  Servants  of  Isis,  Pastophori,  was  founded  in 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Sulla,  about  80  B.C.  In  vain  the  authori- 
ties tried  to  drive  out  the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  gods.  Three 
times  their  temple,  in  the  midst  of  the  city,  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  the  consuls,  in  58,  50,  and  48  B.C.  But  after  Caesar's 
death,  in  44  b.c,  the  triumvirs  built  a  temple  in  honor  of  Isis 
and  Osiris;  and  a  few  decades  later,  perhaps  in  the  reign  of 
Caligula,  their  festival  was  recognized  in  the  public  Calendar. 
In  Campania  the  Alexandrian  cult  gained  a  foothold  earlier 
than  in  Rome.  An  inscription  of  the  year  105  B.C.,  found  at 
Puteoli,  proves  that  a  temple  of  Serapis  was  then  standing  in 
that  enterprising  city,  which  had  close  commercial  relations 
with  Egypt  and  the  East.  Soon  after  this  date  the  earlier 
temple  of  Isis  at  Pompeii  must  have  been  built. 


I70 


POMPEII 


Vlll      s(>> 


Li 


Fig.  78. —  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Isis 
i 


The  entrance  to  the  court  of  the  temple  (Fig.  78)  is  from  the 
north.  Above  the  door  is  an  inscription  which  informs  us  that 
after  an  earthquake  (that  of  the  year  63)  Numerius  Popidius 
Celsinus,  at  his  own  expense,  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Isis  from  the 

foundation,  and  that  in  recog- 
nition of  his  generosity,  though 
he  was  only  six  years  of  age, 
the  members  of  the  city  coun- 
cil, the  decurions,  admitted  him 
without  cost  to  their  rank : 
iV[//;;/rr/;/j]  Popidius  N\_uine- 
riij  f\_ilius\  Celsinus  aedcm 
Isidis  terrae  inotu  conlapsani  a 
fujidamento  p\_ecnnia\  s\_ua\ 
restituit ;  huiic  dccuriones  ob 
liberalitatein,  cum  esset  aiino- 
rnm  sexs,  ordini  suo  gratis  ad- 
Icgerunt.  The  temple  evi- 
dently belonged  to  the  city ; 
and  the  places  for  statues  in 
the  court,  as  the  inscriptions 
show,  were  assigned  by  vote  of 
the  city  council. 
Other  inscriptions  give  information  in  regard  to  the  family  of 
the  child  Celsinus.  His  father  was  Numerius  Popidius  Ampli- 
atus,  his  mother  Corelia  Celsa ;  a  brother  bore  the  same  name  as 
the  father.  The  real  rebuilders  were  of  course  the  parents ;  by 
associating  their  munificence  with  the  name  of  their  son,  they 
opened  the  w^ay  for  him  to  the  city  offices,  for  which  the  father, 
a  freedman,  was  not  eligible.  Ampliatus  perpetuated  his  own 
name  by  setting  up  a  statue  of  Bacchus  in  a  niche  in  the  outside 
of  the  rear  wall  of  the  templ^  (at  c  on  the  plan),  with  the  inscrip- 
tion :  N.  Popidius  Ampliatus  pater  p.  s.,  '  Numerius  Popidius 
Ampliatus  the  father  (set  up  this  statue)  at  his  own  expense.' 
The  names  of  the  two  sons  appear  with  that  of  their  mother 
in  the  mosaic  floor  of  the  large  room  (6)  behind  the  colonnade 
at  the  rear. 

Though   the    rebuildins:  of    Celsinus  was  '  from  the  founda- 


1.  Portico. 

2.  Cella. 

3.  Shrine  of  Harpocrates. 

4.  Purgatorium. 

5.  Hall  of  initiation. 

6.  Hall  of  the  Mysteries. 
7,8,g.  Dwelling  of  priest. 
a.  Colonnade. 


Pit  for  the  refuse  of 
sacrifices. 
c.    Niche  for  statue  of 

Bacchus. 
d,d.  Niches  at  the  sides 

of  the  cella. 
e.    Large  altar. 


1 


THE  TEMPLE   OF   ISIS  171 

tion,*  remains  of  the  old  temple  were  utilized,  as  shafts  of 
columns  and  Corinthian  capitals  coated  with  white  stucco  ;  and 
the  plan  of  the  new  building  was  very  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  old.  The  stylobate  of  the  colonnade  belongs  to  the 
earlier  structure,  but  the  columns  originally  stood  nearer  to- 
gether, eight  instead  of  seven  at  the  ends,  and  ten  on  the  sides. 

The  architectural  forms  and  the  workmanship  of  these  re- 
mains point  to  a  time  just  after  the  founding  of  the  Roman 
colony  ;  nevertheless  the  dimensions  of  the  colonnade,  approxi- 
mately fifty  by  sixty  Oscan  feet,  reduce  to  the  pre-Roman 
standard  of  measurement,  and  the  building  may  have  been 
commenced  earlier.  In  later  times  the  increasing  number  of 
the  worshippers  of  Isis  made  necessary  an  enlargement  of  the 
sanctuary.  The  two  rooms  at  the  west  end  (5  and  6)  were 
added  at  the  expense  of  the  Palaestra,  probably  at  the  time 
of  the  rebuilding. 

In  the  middle  of  the  court,  which  is  surrounded  by  the  colon- 
nade, is  the  temple,  consisting  of  an  oblong  cella  (2),  the  east 
side  of  which  is  treated  as  a  front,  with  a  portico  borne  by  six 
columns  (i).  A  pit  for  the  refuse  of  sacrifices,  enclosed  by 
a  wall  {b)  stands  in  the  corner  of  the  court  near  the  entrance 
from  the  street ;  in  the  opposite  corner  there  is  a  larger  en- 
closure having  the  appearance  of  a  small  temple  (4).  Near 
this  are  two  altars ;  a  third  altar  stood  close  to  the  temple,  and 
there  are  five  others,  somewhat  smaller,  between  the  columns. 
On  the  south  side,  between  the  colonnade  and  the  Theatre,  is 
a  small  area  of  irregular  shape,  east  of  which  is  a  dwelling 
containing  five  rooms  (7,  8,  9). 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  temple  as  it  is 
to-day  (Fig.  79)  and  as  it  was  before  the  eruption  (Fig.  80). 
It  has  architecturally  nothing  suggestive  of  the  Egyptian  style. 
Yet  the  plan  presents  a  marked  deviation  from  ordinary  types, 
as  if  the  builders,  erecting  an  edifice  for  the  worship  of  foreign 
gods,  strove  with  set  purpose  to  produce  a  bizarre  effect ;  at  the 
right  and  the  left  of  the  front  of  the  cella  is  a  large  niche,  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  sides  of  the  portico,  and  inorganically  con- 
nected with  the  main  part  of  the  temple  by  a  pilaster.  In  the 
ornamentation  of  this  temple,  as  in  that  of  the  temple  of  Apollo, 


172 


POMFKll 


the  simple  and  chaste  forms  of  the  Greek  architecture  were 
replaced  by  gaudy  stucco  ornaments  more  in  harmony  with 
the  prevailing  taste. 

Besides  the  broad  flight  of  steps  in  front,  a  narrow  stairway 
at  the  left  of  the  temple  led  to  a  side  door  opening  into  the 
cella.  A  base  of  masonry  about  six  feet  high  extends  across 
the  rear  of  the  cella,  on  which  were  two  pedestals  of  tufa,  about 
sixteen  inches  square,  for  the  statues  of  Isis  and  Osiris.     In  the 


\"i(_-\\  (if  the  tL'iiiplf  of  Isis. 


two  large  niches  outside  other  divinities  stood,  perhaps  Anubis 
and  Harpocrates.  The  latter  was  apparently  worshipped  also 
at  the  shrine  in  the  wall  on  the  east  side  of  the  court  (3),  facing 
the  doorway  of  the  cella.  A  painting  from  this  shrine,  now  in 
the  Naples  Museum,  represents  a  statue  of  Harpocrates  of  the 
familiar  type  —  a  boy  with  his  finger  in  his  mouth  holding  a 
cornucopia,  with  a  lotus  blossom  resting  on  his  forehead  ;  before 
him  stands  a  priest  in  a  long  white  robe,  holding  a  candlestick 
in  each  hand,  while  in  the  background  is  a  temple  surrounded 
by  a    colonnade,  evidently  intended    for  a   free   representation 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   ISIS 


173 


of   the    temple    before    us.     In   front   of    the    shrine  were  the 
charred  remains  of  a  wooden  bench. 

No  statue  was  found  in  the  cella  or  in  the  two  niches  in  front. 
We  may  suppose  that  the  images  of  the  four  divinities,  being 
of  relatively  small  size,  were  carried  off  by  the  priests  at  the 
time  of  the  eruption ;  had  they  been  removed  afterwards,  the 
excavators  would  have  taken  also  the  other  objects  in  the  cella 
used  in  the  services  of  the  temple.  Among  these  were  two 
skulls,  probably  made  use  of  in  the  ceremonies  attending  ini- 


Fig.  80.  —  The  temple  of  Isis,  restored.     In  the  background,  the  Large  Theatre. 


tiation  into  the  Mysteries,  and  a  marble  hand,  about  four  inches 
long,  but  whether  a  right  or  a  left  hand,  the  journal  of  the 
excavations  does  not  say.  A  left  hand  was  carried  in  the  pro- 
cession in  honor  of  Isis,  described  by  Apuleius;  as  the  weaker 
of  the  two,  and  so  less  ready  to  do  evil,  it  symbolized  the  even 
justice  (acqtiitas)  with  which  the  deity  governs  the  world. 
There  were  also  two  wooden  caskets,  one  of  which  contained 
a  diminutive  gold  cup,  measuring  less  than  an  inch  across  the 
top,  a  glass  vessel  a  trifle  over  an  inch  and  a  half  in  height,  and 
a  statuette  of  a  god  about  half  as  high  ;  in  the  other  were  two 


174  pomim:ii 

bronze  candlesticks  about  ten  inches  high,  the  use  of  which 
may  be  inferred  from  the  painting  described  above,  and  a 
bronze  lamp  with  places  for  two  wicks. 

The  walls  of  the  colonnade  were  painted  in  bright  colors  on 
a  deep  red  ground.  The  lower  part  of  the  columns  was  red, 
but  above  they  were  white ;  the  temple  also  was  white,  the 
purpose  obviously  being  to  give  the  appearance  of  marble. 
Nevertheless  the  same  decorative  framework  appears  both  in 
the  white  stucco  of  the  temple  and  the  painted  decoration  of 
the  colonnade :  a  division  of  the  body  of  the  wall  into  large 
panels,  with  a  continuous  garland  of  conventional  plant  forms 
above.  In  the  colonnade  there  was  a  yellow  base,  treated  as 
a  projecting  architectural  member ;  above  it  large  red  panels 
alternated  with  light,  fantastic  architectural  designs  in  yellow 
on  a  red  ground.  The  frieze  was  black,  with  garlands  in  strong 
contrast  —  green,  blue,  and  yellow  —  enlivened  with  all  sorts 
of  animal  forms.  In  the  middle  of  each  of  the  large  panels 
was  a  priest  of  Isis ;  in  the  lower  part  of  the  intervening  archi- 
tectural designs  were  marine  pictures,  —  galleys  maneuvring, 
and  seafights.  Similar  pictures  are  found  in  other  buildings, 
as  the  Macellum,  but  marine  views  were  especially  appropriate 
here,  because  Isis  was  a  patron  divinity  of  seamen.  Apuleius 
gives  an  interesting  description  of  the  spring  festival,  by  which 
the  navigation  of  the  opening  season  was  committed  to  her 
guardian  care. 

Opposite  the  entrance  of  the  temple  the  colonnade  presents 
an  interesting  pecuHarity  of  construction,  which  is  found  also  in 
other  buildings  at  Pompeii,  as  the  Stabian  Baths.  The  place 
of  the  three  middle  columns  on  that  side  is  taken  by  two  large 
pillars,  higher  than  the  rest  of  the  colonnade,  each  of  which  is 
backed  by  an  attached  half-column.  This  arrangement  made 
the  approach  to  the  temple  more  imposing,  and  also  furnished 
an  appropriate  setting  for  the  shrine  of  Harpocrates  against 
the  wall. 

The  principal  altar,  on  which  sacrifice  w-as  offered  to  the 
divinities  worshipped  in  the  temple,  is  that  near  the  foot  of 
the  steps  in  front  (e).  The  officiating  priest  stood  on  a  block 
of  stone  at  the  side  of  it.  with  the  temple  at  his  right ;  on  this 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   ISIS  175 

altar  were  found  ashes  and  fragments  of  calcined  bones.  The 
two  smaller  altars  near  by  were  probably  consecrated  to  the 
gods  whose  images  were  placed  in  the  exterior  niches. 

Two  rectangular  pits  were  used  as  receptacles  for  the  refuse 
of  sacrifices.  One  was  quite  small,  and  no  trace  of  it  can  now 
be  found  ;  it  was  near  the  large  altar,  and  contained  remains  of 
burnt  figs,  pine  kernels  and  cones,  nuts,  and  dates,  with  frag- 
ments of  two  statuettes  representing  divinities.  The  wall  about 
the  other  {b),  when  excavated,  was  built  up  at  each  end  in  the 
form  of  a  gable,  and  evidently  once  supported  a  wooden  roof ; 
in  this  pit  also  were  charred  remains  of  fruits.  What  divinities 
were  worshipped  at  the  altars  between  the  columns,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine.  The  small  base  standing  against  the  corner 
column  near  the  entrance  (seen  in  Fig.  79)  was  probably  a 
pedestal,  not  an  altar. 

At  the  left  of  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  temple,  and  facing 
the  large  altar,  is  a  small  pillar  of  masonry  fifteen  inches  square 
and  nearly  two  and  a  half  feet  high.  A  similar  pillar,  which 
formerly  stood  at  the  right,  had  thin  slabs  of  stone  on  three 
sides.  One  of  these,  that  on  the  front  of  the  pillar  (now  in 
the  Naples  Museum),  was  covered  with  hieroglyphics.  It  is 
a  memorial  tablet,  which  Hat,  'the  writer  of  the  divine  word,' 
Jiierograuiuiatcus,  set  up  in  honor  of  his  parents  and  grand- 
parents ;  it  contains  symbolic  representations  in  three  divisions, 
one  above  the  other.  In  the  upper  division  Hat,  his  brother 
and  colleague  Meran,  their  father  and  grandfather,  are  praying 
to  Osiris,  '  Lord  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Dead ' ;  below.  Hat  is 
bringing  to  his  parents  and  grandparents  offerings  for  the  dead, 
while  in  the  lower  division  Meran  and  two  sisters  unite  with 
him  in  prayer  to  Osiris.  The  tablet  could  hardly  have  been 
designed  for  a  temple,  but  still,  by  reason  of  its  contents,  it  was 
considered  appropriate  for  this  place.  It  was  doubtless  in- 
tended that  a  similar  tablet  should  be  affixed  to  the  pillar  at 
the  left,  but  perhaps  none  happened  to  be  available  ;  statuettes 
of  divinities  were  probably  placed  on  the  pillars. 

The  presence  of  a  statue  of  Bacchus  in  the  niche  in  the  rear  wall 
of  the  cella  is  easily  explained  ;  this  divinity  was  identified  with 
Osiris.     Two  ears  are  moulded  in  the  stucco  beside  the  niche. 


176  POMPEII 

symbolic  of  the  listening  of  the  god  to  the  prayers  of  his  wor- 
shippers. 

Against  the  west  wall  of  the  colonnade,  near  the  corners, 
were  two  pedestals,  with  statues  of  female  divinities  about  one 
half  life  size.  At  the  right  was  Isis,  in  archaic  Greek  costume, 
with  the  inscription :  L.  Caeciliiis  PJioebiis  posuit  l\oc6\  d[ato'] 
d{ectirio7inni\  d\_ea-eto\  'Set  up  by  Lucius  Caecilius  Phoebus, 
in  a  place  granted  by  a  decree  of  the  city  council ' ;  the 
name  indicates  that  the  donor  was  a  freedman.  The  other 
statue,  at  the  left,  represents  Venus  drying  her  hair  after  the 
bath  ;  it  is  of  a  common  type  and  possesses  small  value  as  a 
work  of  art,  yet  is  of  interest  because  of  the  well  preserved 
painting  and  gilding.  Venus,  as  many  other  goddesses,  was 
identified  with  Isis. 

In  the  same  corner  with  the  statue  of  Venus,  against  the 
south  wall,  stood  the  herm  of  Gaius  Norbanus  Sorex,  a  marble 
pillar  with  a  bronze  head.  According  to  the  inscription,  he  was 
an  actor  who  played  the  second  part  {secnndarnin,  sc.  partiuni), 
and  was  also  magister  of  the  suburb  Pagus  Augustus  Felix. 
He  was  probably  a  generous  supporter  of  the  temple.  A  dupli- 
cate of  the  herm  is  found  in  the  Eumachia  building,  to  which 
also  he  may  have  made  a  contribution.  The  low  social  stand- 
ing of  the  various  benefactors  of  the  temple  is  noteworthy ;  it 
indicates  in  what  circles  the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  divinities 
found  its  adherents.  As  yet  this  was  by  no  means  an  aristo- 
cratic cult,  although  it  became  such  later,  especially  after  the 
time  of  Hadrian. 

While  the  Greek  and  Roman  gods  were  honored  chiefly  at 
their  festivals,  the  Egyptian  divinities  demanded  worship  every 
day,  indeed  several  times  a  day.  The  early  service,  the  '  open- 
ing of  the  temple,'  is  described  by  Apuleius,  who  was  probably 
admitted  to  the  college  of  the  Servants  of  Isis  in  Rome  in  the 
time  of  the  Antonines,  and  wrote  about  160  a.d.  Before  day- 
break the  priest  went  into  the  temple  by  the  side  entrance  and 
threw  back  the  great  doors,  which  were  fastened  on  the  inside. 
White  linen  curtains  were  hung  across  the  doorway,  shielding 
the  interior  from  view.  Now  the  street  gate  of  the  court  was 
opened  ;  the  thronging  multitude  of  the  devout  streamed  in  and 


THE   TEMPLE    OF    ISIS 


^77 


took  their  places  in  front  of  the  temple.  The  curtains  were 
drawn  aside  and  the  image  of  the  goddess  was  presented  to  the 
gaze  of  her  worshippers,  who  greeted  her  with  prayers  and 
shaking  of  the  sistrum,  a  musical  rattle,  the  use  of  which  was 
characteristic  of  the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  gods.     For  a  time 


Fig.  8i. —  Scene  from   the   worship   of    Isis  —  the   adoration    of  the    holy   water.      Wall 
painting  from  Herculaneum. 

they  remained  sitting,  engaged  in  prayer  and  in  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  divinity  ;  an  hour  after  daybreak  the  service  was 
closed  with  an  invocation  to  the  newly  risen  sun.  This  descrip- 
tion throws  light  on  the  purpose  of  the  bench  in  front  of  the 
shrine  of  Harpocrates. 

The  second  service  was  held  at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
but  we  do  not  possess  exact  information  in  regard  to  it.     It  is. 


178  POMPEII 

perhaps,  depicted  in  a  fresco  painting  from  Herculaneum  (Fig. 
81),  the  subject  of  which  is  a  solemn  act  in  the  worship  of  Isis, 
the  adoration  of  the  holy  water.  In  the  portico  of  the  temple, 
above  the  steps,  two  priests  and  a  priestess  are  standing.  The 
priest  in  the  middle  holds  in  front  of  him,  in  the  folds  of  his 
robe,  a  vessel  containing  the  holy  water,  which  was  supposed  to 
bs  from  the  Nile ;  his  two  associates  are  shaking  the  sistrum. 
There  is  an  altar  at  the  foot  of  the  steps ;  a  priest  is  fanning 
the  fire  into  flame.  On  the  right  and  the  left  of  the  altar 
are  the  worshippers,  with  other  priests,  part  of  whom  are  shak- 
ing the  sistrum,  while  a  fluteplayer  sits  in  the  foreground  at 
the  right. 

Another  painting,  the  counterpart  of  that  just  described, 
seems  to  portray  the  celebration  of  a  festival ;  the  surroundings 
correspond  fairly  well  with  those  of  our  temple.  The  doors  are 
thrown  back  ;  a  dark-visaged  man,  wearing  a  wreath,  is  dancing 
in  the  doorway.  Behind  him,  within  the  temple,  are  the  musi- 
cians, among  whom  can  be  distinguished  a  girl  striking  the 
cymbals  and  a  woman  with  a  tambourine.  About  the  steps  are 
priests  and  other  worshippers,  shaking  the  sistrum  and  offering 
prayer  ;  in  front  stands  a  burning  altar.  An  important  festival 
of  Isis  occurred  in  November.  It  commenced  with  an  impas- 
sioned lamentation  over  the  death  of  Osiris  and  the  search  for 
his  body.  On  the  third  day,  November  12,  the  finding  of  the 
body  by  Isis  was  celebrated  with  great  rejoicing.  So,  perhaps, 
in  this  painting  the  dance  is  a  manifestation  of  the  joy  with 
which  the  festival  ended,  the  whole  picture  being  a  scene  from 
the  observance  of  the  Egyptian  Easter. 

In  such  celebrations  use  would  be  made  of  the  small  brazier 
of  bronze  found  in  the  court  in  front  of  our  temple,  on  which 
incense  could  be  burned.  The  ablutions,  which  played  so 
important  a  part  in  Egyptian  rites,  were  performed  in  the  rear 
of  the  court,  where  stood  a  cvlindrical  leaden  vessel,  adorned 
with  Egyptian  figures  in  relief;  a  jet  fell  into  it  from  a  lead 
pipe  connected  with  the  city  aqueduct. 

The  small  building  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  court,  which 
is  known  as  the  Purgatorium,  was  open  to  the  sky.  It  was 
made  to  look  like  a  roofed  structure  bv  the  addition  of  gables 


THE   TEMPLE    OF   ISIS 


179 


at  the  ends.  On  the  inside,  at  the  rear,  a  flight  of  steps  leads 
down  toward  the  right  to  a  vaulted  underground  chamber,  about 
five  feet  wide  and  six  and  a  half  feet  long.  The  inner  part  of 
the  chamber,  divided  off  by  a  low  wall,  was  evidently  intended 
for  a  tank.  In  one  of  the  corners  in  the  front  part  is  a  low 
base,  on  which  a  jar  could  be  set  while  it  was  being  filled. 
Here  the  holy  Nile  water  —  more  or  less  genuine — was  kept 
for  use  in  the  sacred  rites. 

The  purpose  of  the  tank  is  suggested  by  certain  of  the  stucco 
reliefs  on  the  outside  of  the  enclosing  wall.  In  the  gable,  above 
the  entrance,  is  a  vase,  standing  out  from  a  blue  ground,  with  a 
kneeling  figure  on  either  side.  The  frieze  contains  Egyptian 
priests  and  priestesses,  also  on 
a  blue  ground,  with  their  faces 
turned  toward  the  vessel  (Fig. 
82).  The  figures  are  all  wor- 
shipping the  sacred  water  in 
the  vase. 

Of  the  other  figures  in  relief, 
only  the  two  goddesses  in  the 
panels  at  the  sides  of  the  en- 
trance have  an  Egyptian  char- 
acter. Under  each  of  them 
was  a  small  altar  of  tufa,  at- 
tached to  the  wall ;  the  figure 
at  the  left  (Fig.  82)  is  plainly 
Isis. 

The  side  walls  are  decorated 
with  reliefs  in  Greco-Roman 
style.  They  are  divided  into 
a  large  middle  panel,  containing 
two  figures,  and  two  side  panels, 

each     with     a     Cupid.        In     the   F'S-  82.— Part  of  the   facade  of  the  Furgato- 

middle  panel,  on  the  right  side. 

Mars  and  Venus  are  represented  ;  in  that  at  the  left,  Perseus 

rescuing  Andromeda  (Fig.  8^). 

The  dwelling  back  of  the  colonnade,  on  the  south  side,  con- 
sists of  a  kitchen  (8),  a  dining  room  (7),  a  sleeping  apartment  (9), 


i8o 


POMPEII 


and  two  small  rooms  at  the  rear,  under  the  stairway  leading  to 
the  highest  seats  of  the  Large  Theatre.  The  ritual  of  the 
Egyptian  gods  was  so  exacting,  and  the  services  of  worship 
were  so  numerous,  that  it  was  necessary  for  one  or  more  priests 
to  reside  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple.  These  rooms  were 
the  habitation  of  a  priest. 

One  of  the  rooms  on  the  west  side  (6)  is  oblong  in  shape, 
with  five  broad,  arched  entrances  opening  from  the  colonnade. 
The  walls  were  richly  decorated  in  the  last  Pompeian  style. 
There  were  seven   large  paintings,   five  of   which   were    land- 


Fig.  83. —  Decoration  of  the  east  side  of  the  Purgatorium —  Perseus  rescuing  Andromeda. 
At  the  right  and  the  left  floating  Cupids,  the  one  at  the  left  bearing  a  box  of  incense. 


scapes  with  shrines,  part  being  Egyptian  landscapes ;  the  other 
two  represent  lo  watched  by  Argus,  with  Hermes  coming  to 
rescue  her,  and  To  in  Egypt,  received  by  Isis.  Against  the  rear 
wall  was  a  pedestal,  on  which  probably  stood  the  female  figure, 
above  life  size,  the  remains  of  which  were  found  in  one  of  the 
entrances.  Only  the  head,  the  hands,  and  the  front  parts  of 
the  feet  were  of  marble ;  the  rest  was  of  wood,  no  doubt  con- 
cealed by  drapery.  The  priests  seemingly  had  started  to  carry 
the  statue  with  them  when  they  fled,  but  abandoned  the  attempt 
at  the  doorway.  In  the  same  room  a  marble  table,  a  sistrum, 
two  pots  of  terra  cotta,  three  small  glass  bottles,  and  a  glass 
cup  were  found.    We  may  safely  conclude  that  here  the  common 


THE   TEMPLE   OF    ISIS  i8i 

meals  were  served,  of  which,  as  we  learn  from  Apuleius,  the 
devotees  of  the  cult  partook.  And  when,  in  connection  with 
the  great  festivals,  the  Mysteries  were  celebrated  with  a  presen- 
tation of  the  myth  of  I  sis  and  Osiris  in  pantomime,  this  large 
room  was  well  adapted  for  the  sacred  exhibitions. 

The  adjoining  room,  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  colonnade 
(5),  is  irregular  in  shape  and  of  an  entirely  different  character. 
It  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  sacred  place,  and  to  have 
been  used  for  secret  ceremonies.  It  was  entered  from  the  col- 
onnade by  a  narrow  door,  which  could  be  securely  fastened. 
Large,  sketchy  pictures  of  gods  were  painted  on  the  walls  on  a 
white  ground,  —  Isis,  Osiris,  Typhon,  —  with  sacred  animals 
and  symbols  relating  to  the  myth  which  to  us  are  unintelligible. 
The  excavators  found  here  the  remains  of  four  wooden  statues 
with  marble  heads,  hands,  and  feet,  one  of  a  male  figure,  the 
other  three  female ;  there  were  besides  a  statuette  of  an  Egyp- 
tian god  made  of  green  stone,  on  which  were  hieroglyphics ;  a 
statuette  of  white  clay,  covered  with  a  green  glaze ;  a  sphinx  oi 
terra  cotta,  fragments  of  terra  cotta  statuettes  of  Egyptian 
figures,  different  kinds  of  vessels  of  clay,  glass,  and  lead,  and  a 
bronze  knife,  evidently  intended  for  use  in  sacrifices.  At  the 
left  near  the  entrance  is  a  small  reservoir,  reached  by  three 
steps.  On  the  north  side  is  a  niche  that  apparently  formed 
part  of  a  small  shrine. 

A  kind  of  alcove  opens  off  from  the  southeast  corner  of  this 
room,  the  entrance  to  which  could  be  closed  by  a  curtain.  From 
this  a  few  steps  and  a  door  led  into  a  storeroom,  in  which  were 
found  about  three  dozen  vessels  of  various  shapes,  an  iron  tripod, 
and  no  less  than  fifty-eight  earthen  lamps.  The  lamps  were  in 
part  provided  with  iron  rings,  so  that  they  could  be  suspended ; 
there  were  also  iron  rods,  which  the  excavators  supposed  to 
be  lamp  holders.  A  rear  door  connected  the  storeroom  with 
the  small  area  of  irregular  shape  between  the  Palaestra  and  the 
Theatre. 

These  arrangements  suggest  the  celebration  of  secret  rites 
by  night ;  we  may  well  believe  that  novices  were  here  initiated 
into  the  order  of  the  Servants  of  Isis.  Obscure  hints  in  regard 
to  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  consecration  to  the  ser- 


i82  POMPEII 

vice  of  the  goddess  are  thrown  out  by  Apuleius.  '  The  initia- 
tion,' said  the  priest  to  him,  '  is  conducted  under  the  image  of 
a  voluntary  death,  with  the  renewing  of  life  as  a  gift  from  the 
deity.'  Of  his  own  experience  he  says  merely :  '  I  came  to 
the  borders  of  death,  I  trod  the  threshold  of  Proserpina,  then 
came  back  through  all  the  stages  to  life.  In  the  middle  of  the 
night  I  saw  the  sun  shine  brightly ;  I  entered  into  the  imme- 
diate presence  of  the  gods  above  and  the  gods  below,  and  wor- 
shipped them  face  to  face.' 

Renunciation  of  past  life,  and  a  second  birth  to  a  new  and 
purified  existence,  were  the  main  ideas  underlying  the  cere- 
monies, which  as  presented  here  must  have  been  far  less 
splendid  and  impressive  than  in  Rome,  where  they  were 
witnessed  by  Apuleius. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 


THE   TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS  MILICHIUS 


Wl 


^ 


n 


J 


84.  —  Plan  of  the  temple  of  Zeus 
Milichius. 

1.  Colonnade. 

2.  Court,  with  large  altar. 

3.  Cella. 

4.  Sacristan's  room. 


The  small  temple  near  the  northeast  corner  of  the  block  con- 
taining the  theatres  is  entered  from  Stabian  Street.  The  court 
(Fig.  84,  2),  like  that  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian,  has  a  colonnade 
across  the  front ;  only  the  founda- 
tion and  a  Doric  capital  of  lava  are 
preserved. 

At  the  end  of  the  colonnade  on 
the  right  is  the  room  of  the  sacris- 
tan (4).  The  large  altar  ( Fig.  251) 
stands  close  to  the  foot  of  the  steps 
leading  up  to  the  temple.  It  is 
built  of  blocks  of  tufa,  with  a  frieze 
of  triglyphs  and  panels  like  those 
found  on  walls  in  the  first  style  of  decoration. 

The  steps  extend  across  the  front  of  the  temple,  the  unusual 
elevation  of  which  is  explained  by  the  inequality  of  the  ground. 
Of  the  six  columns  in  the  tetrastyle  portico  no  remains  have 
been  found,  but  three  capitals  of  pilasters  are  preserved,  two 
belonging  to  those  at  the  corners  of  the  cella,  and  one,  consid- 
erably smaller,  to  a  doorpost ;  they  are  of  tufa,  and  were  once 
covered  with  white  stucco. 

The  excellent  proportions  and  fine  workmanship  of  the  capi- 
tals point  to  the  period  of  the  first  style  of  decoration ;  there 
was  formerly  a  remnant  of  that  style  on  the  north  wall  of  the 
cella,  copied  before  1837.  Nevertheless  the  quasi-reticulate 
masonry  of  the  cella,  closely  resembling  that  of  the  Small 
Theatre,  dates  from  the  early  years  of  the  Roman  colony.  In 
this  period  the  temple  in  its  present  form  was  built,  perhaps 
with  the  help  of  native  Pompeian  masons. 


Wui      v/Ci 


-z.^ 


1 84 


POMPEII 


Attached  to  the  rear  wall  of  the  cella  was  an  oblong  pedestal 
on  which  were  placed  two  statues,  representing  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  together  with  a  bust  of  Minerva,  all  of  terra  cotta  and  of 
poor  workmanship.  The  suggestion  at  once  presents  itself  that 
this  was  the  Capitolium,  erected  by  the  Roman  colonists  soon 
after  they  settled  in  Pompeii.  It  is  incredible,  however,  that 
colonists  who  had  the  means  to  erect  monumental  buildings, 
such  as  the  Amphitheatre  and  the  Small  Theatre,  should  have 
housed  the  great  gods  of  the  Capitol  in  so  modest  a  temple, 
in  so  inconspicuous  a  spot,  and  should  not  have  provided  more 
costly  images. 

All  the  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  explanation,  already 
proposed  (p.   66),   that    after    the   earthquake    the  worship    of 

the  gods  of  the  Capitol  was 
transferred  hither  temporarily 
from  the  temple  in  the  Forum, 
until  that  should  be  rebuilt. 

What  divinity  thus  became 
the  host  of  the  Roman  gods .'' 
It  would  be  impossible  to  say 
but  for  the  fortunate  recovery 
of  an  Oscan  inscription,  which 
was  set  up  in  the  passage  of 
the  Stabian  Gate.  This  com- 
memorates the  work  of  two 
aediles,  M.  Sittius  and  N.  Pontius,  who  improved  the  street 
leading  out  from  the  Stabian  Gate  *  as  far  as  the  Stabian 
Bridge,  and  the  Via  Pompeiana  as  far  as  the  temple  of  Zeus 
Milichius ;  these  streets,  as  well  as  the  Via  Jovia  (and  another, 
the  name  of  which  cannot  be  made  out)  they  placed  in  perfect 
repair.' 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  Via  Pompeiana,  mentioned 
in  immediate  connection  with  the  road  leading  to  Stabiae,  was 
the  continuation  of  the  latter  within  the  city,  or  Stabian  Street. 
This,  then,  led  to  the  temple  named  in  the  inscription,  and  as 
there  is  no  other  temple  on  the  street,  the  small  sanctuary  in 
which  the  images  of  the  Capitoline  divinities  were  placed  was 
the  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius. 


Fig  83  — Capital  of  pilaslei  with  the 
face  of  Zeus  Muichius. 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   ZEUS   MILICHIUS  185 

This  building,  however,  is  not  old  enough  to  have  been  men- 
tioned in  an  Oscan  inscription.  It  probably  stands  in  the  place 
of  a  much  earlier  edifice.  The  masonry  of  the  wall  on  the  south 
side  of  the  court  is  different  from  that  of  the  other  walls,  and 
older ;  as  it  shows  no  trace  of  a  cross  wall,  it  must  always  have 
stood  at  the  side  of  an  open  space,  such  as  that  of  the  present 
court.  To  the  earlier  building  the  capitals  belong,  the  style  of 
which,  as  remarked  above,  is  pre-Roman. 

In  view  of  this  explanation,  we  should  probably  recognize  in 
the  head  carved  on  the  smallest  of  the  pilaster  capitals  (Fig.  85) 
a  representation  of  Zeus  Milichius,  a  divinity  honored  in  many 
parts  of  Greece,  especially  by  the  farmers ;  Zeus  the  Gracious, 
the  patron  of  tillers  of  the  soil.  The  serious,  kindly  face,  bearded 
and  with  long  locks,  was  more  than  a  mere  ornament ;  it  was  the 
god  himself  looking  down  upon  the  worshipper  who  entered  his 
sanctuary.  As  a  representation  of  Zeus  it  probably  exemplifies 
an  ancient  type. 


CHAPTER    XXVII 

THE  BATHS  AT  POMPEII.  — THE  STAB  IAN  BATHS 

In  comparison  with  the  great  bathing  establishments  of 
Rome,  the  baths  at  Pompeii  are  of  moderate  size.  They  have, 
however,  a  special  interest,  due  in  part  to  their  excellent  pres- 
ervation, in  part  to  the  certainty  with  which  the  purpose  of  the 
various  rooms  can  be  determined ;  and  their  remains  enable 
us  to  trace  the  development  of  the  public  bath  in  a  single  city 
during  a  period  of  almost  two  hundred  years.  From  this 
source,  moreover,  most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  arrangements 
of  the  ancient  bath  is  derived,  without  which  the  imposing  but 
barren  remains  of  Rome  itself  would  be  for  the  most  part  unin- 
telligible. It  is  not  easy  for  one  living  under  present  conditions 
to  understand  how  important  a  place  the  baths  occupied  in  the 
life  of  antiquity,  particularly  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire ; 
they  offered,  within  a  single  enclosure,  opportunities  for  physi- 
cal care  and  comfort  and  leisurely  intercourse  with  others,  not 
unUke  those  afforded  in  the  cities  of  modern  Europe  by  the 
club,  the  cafe,  and  the  promenade. 

Though  the  Roman  baths  differed  greatly  in  size  and  in 
details  of  arrangement,  the  essential  parts  were  everywhere 
the  same.  First  there  was  a  court,  palaestra,  surrounded  by 
a  colonnade.  This  was  devoted  to  gymnastic  exercises,  and  con- 
nected with  it  in  most  cases  was  an  open-air  swimming  tank. 
The  dressing  room,  apodytcviiim,  was  usually  entered  from  the 
court  through  a  passageway  or  anteroom.  A  basin  for  cold 
baths  was  sometimes  placed  in  the  dressing  room ;  in  large 
establishments  a  separate  apartment  was  set  aside  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  frigidariitm.  To  avoid  too  sudden  a  change  of  tem- 
perature for  the  bathers,  a  room  moderately  heated,  tepidariitm, 
was  placed  between  the  dressing  room  and  the  caldarium,  in 
which  hot  baths  were  given.     At  one  end  of  the  caldarium  was 

i86 


THE   STABIAN    BATHS  187 

a  bath  basin  of  masonry,  aiiwus  ;  at  the  other  was  ordinarily 
a  semicircuhir  niehe,  schola,  in  which  stood  the  labrinn,  a  large, 
shallow,  circular  vessel  resting  upon  a  support  of  masonry,  and 
supplied  with  lukewarm  water  by  a  pipe  leading  from  a  tank 
back  of  the  furnace.  The  more  extensiv-e  establishments,  as 
the  Central  Baths  at  Pompeii,  contained  also  a  round  room, 
called  Laconicinn  from  its  Spartan  origin,  for  sweating  baths 
in  dry  air.  In  describing  baths  it  is  more  convenient  to  use  the 
ancient  names. 

In  earlier  times  the  rooms  were  heated  by  means  of  braziers, 
and  in  one  of  the  Pompeian  baths  the  tepidarium  was  warmed 
in  this  way  to  the  last.  A  more  satisfactory  method  was 
devised  near  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  b.c.  by  Sergius 
Orata,  a  famous  epicure,  whose  surname  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  him  because  of  his  fondness  for  golden  trout  iaitratae). 
He  was  the  first  to  plant  artificial  oyster  beds  in  the  Lucrine 
Lake,  and  the  experiment  was  so  successful  that  he  derived  a 
large  income  from  them  ;  we  may  assume  that  he  turned  an 
honest  penny  also  by  his  invention  of  the  'hanging  baths,' 
balneac  pcnsilcs,  with  which  his  name  has  ever  since  been  asso- 
ciated. These  were  built  with  a  hollow  space  under  the  floor, 
the  space  being  secured  by  making  the  floor  of  tiles,  two  feet 
square,  supported  at  the  corners  by  small  brick  pillars  (Fig.  88); 
into  this  space  hot  air  was  introduced  from  the  furnace,  and  as 
the  floor  became  warm,  the  temperature  of  the  room  above  was 
evenly  modified. 

This  improved  method  of  heating  was  not  long  restricted  to 
the  floors.  As  early  as  the  Republican  period,  the  hollow  space 
was  extended  to  the  walls  by  means  of  small  quadrangular 
flues  and  by  the  use  of  nipple  tiles,  tcgnlae  inamniatae,  large 
rectangular  tiles  with  conical  projections,  about  two  inches 
high,  at  each  corner ;  these  were  laid  on  their  edges,  with  the 
projections  pressed  against  the  wall,  thus  leaving  an  air  space 
on  the  inside. 

In  bathing  establishments  designed  for  both  men  and  women, 
the  two  caldariums  were  placed  near  together.  There  was 
a  single  furnace,  Jiypocansis,  where  the  water  for  the  baths  was 
warmed ;    from  this  also  hot  air  was  conveyed  through  broad 


1 88  POMPEII 

flues  under  the  floors  of  both  caldariums,  thence  circulating 
through  the  walls.  Through  similar  flues  underneath,  the  warm 
air,  already  considerably  cooled,  was  conveyed  from  the  hollow 
spaces  of  the  caldariums  into  those  of  the  tepidariums.  In 
order  to  maintain  a  draft  strong  enough  to  draw  the  hot  air 
from  the  furnace  under  the  floors,  the  air  spaces  of  the  walls 
had  vents  above,  remains  of  which  may  still  be  seen  in  some 
baths.  These  vents  were  no  doubt  sufficient  to  keep  up  the 
draft  after  the  rooms  had  once  been  heated  ;  but  in  order  to 
warm  them  at  the  outset  a  draft  fire  was  needed,  — that  is,  a  small 
fire  under  the  floor  at  some  point  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  furnace  and  near  the  vents,  through  which  it  would  cause 
the  escape  of  warm  air,  and  so  start  a  hot  current  from  the 
furnace.  The  place  of  the  draft  fire  has  been  found  under  two 
rooms  of  the  Pompeian  baths  ;  and  a  similar  arrangement  has 
been  noted  in  the  case  of  Roman  baths  excavated  in  Germany. 

The  use  of  the  baths  varied  according  to  individual  taste  and 
medical  advice.  In  general,  however,  bathers  availed  themselves 
of  one  of  three  methods. 

The  most  common  form  of  the  bath  was  that  taken  after 
exercise  in  the  palaestra,  — ball  playing  was  a  favorite  means  of 
exercise,  —  use  being  made  of  all  the  rooms.  The  bather  un- 
dressed in  the  apodyterium,  or  perhaps  in  the  tepidarium, 
where  he  was  rubbed  with  unguents  ;  then  he  took  a  sweat  in 
the  caldarium,  following  it  with  a  warm  bath.  Returning  to 
the  apodyterium,  he  gave  himself  a  cold  bath  either  in  this 
room  or  in  the  frigidarium  ;  he  then  passed  into  the  Laconicum, 
or,  if  there  was  no  Laconicum,  went  back  into  the  caldarium  for 
a  second  sweat ;  lastly,  before  going  out,  he  was  thoroughly 
rubbed  with  unguents,  as  a  safeguard  against  taking  cold. 

Some  bathers  omitted  the  warm  bath.  They  passed  through 
the  tepidarium  directly  into  the  Laconicum  or  caldarium,  where 
they  had  a  sweat ;  they  then  took  a  cold  bath,  or  had  cold  water 
poured  over  them,  and  were  rubbed  with  unguents. 

In  the  simplest  form  of  the  bath  the  main  rooms  were  not 
used  at  all.  The  bathers  heated  themselves  with  exercise  in 
the  palaestra,  then  removed  the  dirt  and  oil  with  scrapers, 
strigiles,  and  bathed  in  the  swimming  tank. 


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THE   STABIAN    BATHS  189 

Up  to  the  present  time  three  pubHc  baths  have  been  excavated 
in  Pompeii,  two  for  both  men  and  women,  one  for  men  only. 
Besides  these  there  are  two  private  establishments  in  the  eighth 
Region  (VIII.  ii.  17  and  23),  one  perhaps  for  men,  the  other  for 
women  ;  and  another,  apparently  for  men,  was  discovered  in  the 
eighteenth  century  near  the  Amphitheatre  and  covered  up  again, 
being  a  part  of  the  villa  of  Julia  Felix.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
two  or  three  more  bathing  establishments  yet  await  excavation; 
one  at  least,  connected  with  a  warm  spring,  is  known  to  us  from 
an  inscription  —  that  of  M.  Crassus  Frugi.  About  a  dozen 
houses  also  contain  complete  baths  for  private  use. 

The  largest  and  oldest  bathing  establishment  at  Pompeii  is 
that  to  which  the  name  Stabian  Baths  has  been  given,  from  its 
location  on  Stabian  Street.  It  was  built  in  the  second  century 
B.C.,  but  was  remodelled  in  the  early  days  of  the  Roman  colony, 
and  afterwards  underwent  extensive  repairs.  It  is  of  irregular 
shape,  and  occupies  a  large  part  of  a  block,  having  streets  on 
three  sides ;  on  the  north  side  it  is  bounded  by  the  house  of 
Siricus.  Opening  upon  two  of  the  streets  are  shops,  which 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  baths  and  are  not  numbered  on  the 
plan  (Fig.  86). 

Entering  from  the  south  through  the  broad  doorway  at  A,  we 
find  ourselves  in  the  palaestra,  C,  which  has  a  colonnade  on  three 
sides.  On  the  west  side  the  place  of  the  colonnade  is  taken  by 
a  strip  of  smooth  pavement  with  a  raised  margin ;  two  heavy 
stone  balls  were  found  here,  which  were  obviously  used  in  a 
game  resembling  the  modern  ninepins ;  at  the  further  end  is 
the  room  for  the  players,  K.  Close  to  the  bowling  course,  at 
the  middle  of  the  west  side,  is  the  swimming  tank,  F,  with 
rooms  (E,  G)  adjoining  it  at  either  end.  At  the  corner  near 
the  further  room,  G,  is  a  side  entrance,  L ;  J  is  the  office 
of  the  director  or  superintendent  in  charge  of  the  building. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  court  are  the  men's  baths,  rooms  I- 
VIII  ;  north  of  these  are  the  women's  baths,  rooms  1-6,  with 
the  furnace  room,  IX,  between  them.  In  the  northwest  corner 
of  the  building  were  small  rooms  (i--c-)  intended  for  private 
baths.     They  had  not  been  provided  with  the  improved  heating 


190 


POMPEII 


FiR.  86. 


arrangements,  and  were  not  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  catastrophe. 
The  larger  room  adjoining  (/t )  was  a  closet. 

The  anteroom  of  the  men's  baths  (IV),  opens  at  one  end  into 
the  dressing  room  or  apodyterium  (VI),  as  seen  in  Plate  V.  It 
has  a  vaulted  ceiling,  richly  decorated.     A  door  at  the  left  leads 

into  -the  frigidarium  (V), 
and  another  at  the  right 
into  a  servants'  waiting 
room  (I),  which  is  acces- 
sible from  the  court. 
This  room  was  formerly 
entered  also  from  the 
street,  through  a  passage 
(III),  which  was  later 
closed ;  on  one  side  of 
it  is  a  bench  of  masonry 
for  the  slaves  in  attend- 
ance upon  their  masters. 
Similar  benches  are 
found  in  the  waiting 
room  at  the  other  end 
of  the  apodyterium  (X). 
The  apodyterium  also 
was  provided  with 
benches  of  the  same  sort, 
as  indicated  on  the  plan  ;  they  are  shown  in  Plate  V.  Along  the 
walls  at  the  sides,  just  under  the  edge  of  the  vaulted  ceiling,  was 
a  row  of  small  niches,  the  use  of  which  corresponded  with  that 
of  the  lockers  in  a  modern  gymnasium.  These  niches  are  about 
5 1  feet  above  the  floor,  while  those  in  the  other  dressing  room 
(2)  are  a  little  less  than  five  feet;  from  this  difference  in  height 
it  has  been  rightly  inferred  that  the  smaller  and  simpler  division 
of  the  baths  was  set  aside  for  women.  The  floor  is  paved  with 
rectangular  flags  of  gray  marble,  with  blocks  of  basalt  next  to 
the  walls.  While  the  walls  were  left  simply  white,  with  a  red 
base,  the  ceiling  was  elaborately  decorated  with  stucco  reliefs  in 
the  style  prevalent  shortly  before  the  destruction  of  the  city; 
there  are  vestiges  of  similar  decoration  in  the  tepidarium.     In 


A.  Main  entrance. 

B.  Colonnade. 
I-VIII.    Men's  baths. 

IV.    Anteroom. 
v.    Frigidarium 
VI.   Apodyterium 
VII.    Tepidarium. 
VIII.    Caldarium. 


Plan  of  the  Stabian  Baths. 

C.    Palaestra. 
F.    Swimming  tank. 
IX.    Furnace  room. 
1-6.    Women's  baths. 

1.  5.    Entrances. 

2.  .'Apodyterium. 

3.  Tepidarium. 

4.  Caldarium. 


THE    STABIAN    BATHS 


191 


octagonal,  hexagonal,  and  quadrangular  panels  are  rosettes, 
Cupids,  trophies,  and  bacchic  figures.  The  lunettes  are  adorned 
with  fantastic  architectural  designs,  in  which  we  see  bacchic 
figures  standing  on  pedestals,  and  Cupids  riding  on  dolphins  ; 
the  sides  of  the  two  arches  supporting  the  ceiling  (one  of  them 
is  seen  in  Plate  V)  are  decorated  with  female  figures  mounted 
on  dolphins,  which  run  out  into  arabesques.  The  frequent  sug- 
gestion of  water  in  these  motives  is  in  harmony  with  the  purpose 
of  the  room. 

Even  more  effective  is  the  decoration  of  the  small  round  frigi- 
darium.  Light  is  admitted,  as  in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  through 
a  round  hole  in  the 
apex  of  the  domed 
ceiling.  At  the  edge 
of  the  circular  bath 
basin,  lined  with  white 
marble,  was  a  narrow 
strip  of  marble  floor, 
which  is  extended  into 
the  four  semicircular 
niches.  Wall  and 
niches  alike  are 
painted  to  represent 
a  beautiful  garden, 
with  a  blue  sky  above 
(Fig.    8y).     The   eye 

wanders  among  trees  and  shrubs,  catching  glimpses  of  birds 
overhead,  of  statues  and  vases  here  and  there  in  the  midst  of 
the  green  foliage,  and  of  jets  of  water  falling  into  circular  basins. 
The  blue  dome  is  studded  with  stars.  The  bather  could  scarcely 
feel  the  narrowness  of  a  room,  the  decoration  of  which  was  so 
suggestive  of  expanse  and  open  air.  A  jet  of  water  fell  into 
the  basin  from  a  small  niche  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall ;  and 
the  place  of  the  overflow  pipe  may  be  easily  recognized. 

The  tepidarium  (VII)  and  caldarium  (VIII)  were  heated  by 
means  of  hollow  floors  and  walls.  The  former  is  much  the 
smaller,  as  we  should  have  expected  from  its  use  as  an  interme- 
diate room,  in  which  the  bathers  would  ordinarily  not  tarry  so 


Fig.  87.- 


-Stabian  Baths:  interior  of  the  frigidarium, 
restored. 


T92  POMPEII 

long  as  in  the  caldarium.  The  large  bath  basin  at  the  east  end 
(indicated  on  the  plan)  is  unusual;  it  was  seemingly  a  later 
addition,  and  was  probably  made  to  accommodate  those  who  in 
the  winter  shrank  from  using  the  frigidarium,  but  wished  never- 
theless to  take  a  moderately  cold  bath.  Near  the  bottom  of  the 
wall  back  of  this  basin,  a  hole  had  been  made  so  that  underneath 
a  fire  could  be  kindled  from  the  outside  (in  X),  not  in  order  to 
heat  the  basin,  which  could  be  supplied  with  warm  water  by 
means  of  a  pipe,  but  to  start  the  circulation  of  hot  air  from  the 
furnace  ;  at  the  top  of  the  wall  above  were  two  vents  opening 
from  the  warm  air  chamber.  There  was  a  place  for  another 
draft  fire  under  the  women's  caldarium. 

One  of  the  fragments  of  stucco  relief  still  remaining  in  the 
tepidarium  presents  the  figure  of  a  man  reading  from  a  roll  of 
manuscript.  It  suggests  the  standing  complaint  of  the  ancients 
in  regard  to  the  trials  of  bathers,  who  could  not  escape  the  ever- 
present  poet  declaiming  his  latest  production. 

At  one  end  of  the  caldarium  we  find  the  bath  basin,  alveus  ; 
at  the  other  is  the  support  of  the  labrum,  which  has  disappeared. 
In  the  niche  above  the  latter  are  two  vents  for  the  draft,  and 
above  the  niche  was  a  round  window.  This  room,  as  most  of  the 
others,  was  dimly  lighted.  The  little  round  window  of  the  ante- 
room is  shown  in  our  plate.  There  were  two  similar  windows 
in  the  lunette  of  the  apodyterium,  above  the  roof  of  the  ante- 
room ;  they  are  not  seen  in  our  plate,  having  at  one  time  been  en- 
tirely covered  up  by  the  construction  of  a  wall  to  support  the 
roof.  A  similar  window  was  very  likely  placed  at  the  end  of 
the  tepidarium,  over  the  roof  of  the  frigidarium ;  and  perhaps 
these  were  supplemented  by  holes  in  the  crown  of  the  arched 
ceilings,  as  in  the  women's  apodyterium. 

The  women's  baths  are  entered  from  the  court  through  a  long 
anteroom  (6) ;  the  dressing  room  is  connected  also  with  the  two 
side  streets  by  means  of  corridors  ( i ,  5).  Originally  there  was  no 
communication  between  the  women's  baths  and  the  palaestra. 

The  apodyterium  (2)  is  the  best  preserved  room  of  the  entire 
building,  and  also  the  most  ancient.  It  shows  almost  no  traces 
of  the  catastrophe.  The  vaulted  ceiling  is  intact.  The  smooth, 
white  stucco  on  the  walls  and  the  simple  cornice  at  the  base  of 


THE    STABIAxN    BATHS  193 

the  lunettes  date  from  the  time  of  the  first  builders.  Now,  as 
then,  light  is  admitted  only  through  two  small  openings  in  the 
crown  of  the  vault  and  a  window  in  the  west  lunette.  To  a 
modern  visitor  the  interior  seems  gloomy.  The  pavement,  of 
lozenge-shaped,  reddish  glazed  tiles,  belongs  to  the  same  early 
period.  There  is  a  strip  of  basaltic  flags  connecting  the  door 
of  one  of  the  corridors  (i)  with  that  of  the  tepidarium.  This 
much  travelled  path  seems  to  indicate  that  many  ladies — par- 
ticularly, we  may  assume,  in  the  winter  —  went  at  once  into  the 
more  comfortable  tepidarium  without  stopping  in  the  dressing 
room.  Along  the  walls  were  benches,  and  above  them  niches, 
as  in  the  men's  apodyterium.  In  the  time  of  the  Empire  the 
fronts  of  the  niches,  finely  carved  in  tufa,  were  overlaid  with  a 
thick  coating  of  stucco,  the  upper  part  being  ornamented  with 
designs  in  relief. 

The  women  had  no  frigidarium.  A  large  basin  for  cold  baths 
was  built  at  the  west  end  of  the  dressing  room,  but  this  also  is 
a  later  addition  ;  before  it  was  made,  those  who  wished  for  cold 
baths  must  have  contented  themselves  with  portable  bath  tubs. 

The  tepidarium  (3)  and  caldarium  (4)  are  in  a  better  state  of 
preservation  than  those  of  the  men's  baths,  which  they  so  closely 
resemble  in  all  their  arrangements  that  a  detailed  description  is 
unnecessary.  In  their  present  form  they  are  not  so  ancient  as 
the  apodyterium,  and  the  decoration  is  less  elaborate  than  that 
of  the  corresponding  rooms  on  the  other  side. 

The  labrum  is  intact,  a  round,  shallow  basin  of  white  marble 
resting  on  a  support  of  masonry ;  it  has  here  no  separate  niche. 
The  bath  basin  in  the  caldarium  also  retains  its  veneering  of 
white  marble,  with  an  overflow  pipe  of  bronze  at  the  upper 
edge ;  it  is  about  two  feet  deep.  In  such  basins  the  bathers 
leaned  against  the  sloping  back,  which  for  this  reason  was 
called  a  cushion  {pulvinits)  by  Vitruvius.  This  alveus  would 
accommodate  eight  bathers,  that  in  the  men's  caldarium  per- 
haps ten.  Places  were  probably  assigned  in  numerical  order, 
each  bather  awaiting  his  turn.  Those  who  did  not  wish 
to  wait,  or  preferred  to  bathe  by  themselves,  might  use  indi- 
vidual bath  tubs  of  bronze.  Remains  of  such  a  tub,  as  well  as 
of  bronze  benches,  were  found  in  this  room.     Near  the  bottom 


194 


POMPEII 


,^  \    \^ 


of  the  alveus  in  front  is  an  opening,  through  which  the  water 
could  be  let  out  ;  when  it  was  emptied,  the  water  ran  over  the 
white  mosaic  floor,  which  was  thus  cleaned. 

In  the  time  of  the  Early  Empire  it  became  the  fashion  to  bathe 
with  very  warm  water.  '  People  want  to  be  parboiled,'  Seneca 
exclaims.  The  construction  of  the  alveus,  however,  was  not  well 
adapted  to  conserve  the  heat,  and  an  ingenious  contrivance  was 
devised  to  remedy  the  difficulty,  which  may  best  be  explained  with 
the  help  of  our  illustration,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  bath 
basin  in  room  4  (Fig.  88).  A  large  hot  air  flue,  U,  led  directly 
from  the  furnace  to  the  hollow  space,  C,  under  the  alveus,  A. 
Above  this  flue  was  a  long  bronze  heater,  B,  in  the  form  of  a 


4- 


Fig.  88.  —  The  bath  basin  in  the  women's  caldarium  —  longitudinal  and  transverse  sec- 
tions, showing  the  arrangement  for  heating  the  water. 

A.  Bath  basin,  alveus.  C.    Hot  air  chamber  under  the  floor. 

B.  Bronze  heater.  D.    Hot  air  flue. 


half  cylinder,  with  one  end  opening  into  the  end  of  the  alveus. 
As  the  bottom  of  the  heater  was  six  inches  lower  than  that  of 
the  alveus,  the  cooler  water  from  the  basin  would  flow  down 
into  it  and  be  heated  again,  a  circulation  being  thus  maintained. 

A  similar  arrangement  (called  testndo  alvci  by  Vitruvius) 
probably  existed  for  the  alveus  in  the  caldarium  on  the  other 
side;  but  that  part  of  the  men's  baths  has  been  destroyed. 
Only  one  other  heater  of  this  kind  has  been  found,  —  and  that 
much  smaller,  —  in  a  villa  near  Boscoreale,  recently  excavated  ;  but 
the  semicircular  opening  made  for  the  heater  above  the  hot  air 
flue  may  be  seen  in  the  Central  Baths,  in  a  private  establishment 
at  Pompeii,  and  generally  in  the  remains  of  Roman  baths. 

In  the  furnace  room  {pracfiirninni,  IX)  between  the  two  cal- 
dariums,  stood  three  large  cvlindrical  tanks.     They  have  disap- 


THE   STABIAN    BATHS  i95 

peared,  but  their  outlines  can  still  be  seen  in  the  masonry  of 
the  foundations,  and  are  shown  in  our  plan.  The  one  furthest 
east  was  for  hot  water.  It  was  directly  over  the  fire,  and  con- 
nected with  the  bath  basins  of  the  two  caldariums.  The  next, 
for  lukewarm  water,  stood  over  a  hollow  space  opening  into  the 
furnace.  A  lead  pipe  leading  from  it  to  the  labrum  of  the 
women's  caldarium  is  still  to  be  seen ;  the  water  bubbled  up  in 
the  middle  of  the  labrum.  The  third  and  largest  reservoir,  for 
cold  water,  was  placed  on  a  foundation  of  solid  masonry. 

The  more  important  alterations  made  in  the  baths  during  the 
two  centuries  that  they  were  in  use  had  to  do  with  the  arrange- 
ments for  heating,  and  may  briefly  be  considered  here  before 
we  proceed  to  another  part  of  the  building.  It  will  be  best  not 
to  weary  the  reader  with  details,  but  to  present  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  conclusions,  which  will  perhaps  be  found  of  interest, 
not  only  as  casting  light  on  the  gradual  development  of  these 
baths,  but  also  as  illustrating  that  adjustment  of  public  build- 
ings to  the  needs  and  tastes  of  successive  generations,  which 
was  as  characteristic  of  ancient  as  it  is  of  modern  life. 

For  the  extensive  changes  made  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
first  century  b.c.  we  have  the  evidence  of  an  inscription,  which 
had  been  cast  aside  and  was  found  in  one  of  the  smaller  rooms. 
It  reads,  C.  Unlius  C.f.,  P.  Aninius  C.f.,  11  v.  i.  d.,  Laconicum 
et  dcstrictariuui  faciund.  et  porticus  et  pala€str\avi\  reficiitnda 
locaritnt  ex  d[ccurion?n)i\  d\ccreto\  ex  eapequnia  quod eos  e  lege  in 
ludos  aiit  in  nwniimcnto  consnmere  oportiiit  faciun\dd\  coerarnni 
eidevique probarH{nt\  The  form  of  the  letters  and  the  spelling 
point  to  the  time  of  Sulla  as  the  period  in  which  the  inscription 
was  cut.  The  syntax  is  confused,  but  the  meaning  is  clear  : 
a  Laconicum  and  dcstrictariuui  were  built,  the  colonnade  and 
palaestra  repaired,  by  the  duumvirs  Gains  Ulius  and  Publius 
Aninius,  in  accordance  with  a  vote  of  the  city  council ;  and  they 
furnished  the  means  for  this  work  in  fulfilment  of  their  obliga- 
tion, incurred  by  the  acceptance  of  the  duumviral  office,  to 
spend  a  certain  sum  upon  either  games  or  buildings. 

The  destrictarium  —  a  room  for  removing  dirt  and  oil  with 
the  strigil  after  gymnastic  exercises  —  is  easily  identified  (D), 
as  are  also  the  palaestra  and  colonnade ;  but  in  our  survey  of 


196  POMPEII 

the  baths,  we  have  found  no  separate  chamber  to  which  the 
term  Laconicum  could  properly  be  applied.  In  order  to  arrive 
at  a  solution  of  the  difficulty,  we  must  note  the  successive  steps 
by  which,  as  shown  by  an  examination  of  the  remains  of  the 
masonry,  the  heating  arrangements  were  extended  and  im- 
proved. 

At  first,  in  the  Baths  as  originally  constructed,  there  were 
neither  hollow  walls  nor  hollow  floors.  The  heating  was  done 
by  means  of  braziers ;  and  there  were  niches  or  lockers  in  the 
walls  of  the  caldariums  and  tepidariums  similar  to  those  now 
found  in  the  dressing  rooms,  but  in  double  rows,  the  upper 
niches  being  larger,  the  lower  smaller. 

Later,  a  hollow  floor  was  built  in  the  men's  caldarium.  Later 
still,  this  room  was  provided  with  hollow  walls,  which  were 
extended  to  the  crown  of  the  ceilings  and  the  lunettes,  the. 
tepidarium  being  still  heated  with  braziers. 

Finally,  a  hollow  floor  and  hollow  walls  were  constructed  at 
the  same  time  in  the  men's  tepidarium,  but  the  hot  air  chamber 
was  not  carried  up  into  the  ceiling  or  the  lunettes. 

A  similar  transformation  was  gradually  arcomplished  in  the 
women's  apartments  ;  but  owing,  it  would  seem,  to  a  desire  for 
greater  warmth  in  the  tepidarium,  the  hot  air  chamber  here,  as 
in  the  caldarium,  was  extended  to  the  lunettes  and  the  ceiling. 

Since  the  method  of  heating  by  means  of  hollow  floors  only 
came  into  vogue  about  100  b.c,  and  since  the  duumvirate  of 
Ulius  and  Aninius  must  have  occurred  soon  after  80  b.c,  we 
are  probably  safe  in  supposing  that  they  built  the  hollow  floors 
of  the  two  caldariums,  and  that  the  new  heating  arrangement 
was  loosely  called  a  Laconicum.  At  least  a  partial  warrant  for 
this  interpretation  is  found  in  a  passage  of  Dion  Cassius 
(LIIL  xxvii.  i),  in  which  he  says  that  Agrippa  built  the  'Spar- 
tan sweating  bath,'  to  irvpLaT-r^pLov  to  Aukcovikov.  Agrippa, 
however,  built,  not  a  Laconicum  in  the  narrow  sense,  but  a  com- 
plete bathing  establishment,  and  Dion,  doubtless  following  some 
earlier  writer,  uses  the  word  as  generally  applicable  to  a  system 
of  warm  baths.  In  default  of  a  better  explanation,  we  must 
accept  a  meaning  equally  loose  for  our  inscription. 

It   is   not  possible    to    date,  even   approximately,   the    other 


THE    STABIAN    BATHS  197 

changes  by  which  the  baths  were  conformed  to  the  increasing 
desire  for  warmth  and  comfort ;  but  the  decoration  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  building,  with  its  comphcated  designs  and 
stucco  rehefs,  was  clearly  applied  to  the  walls  not  many  decades 
before  the  destruction  of  the  city. 

The  unroofed  swimming  tank,  F,  was  separated  from  the 
court  by  a  barrier  of  masonry  about  two  feet  high,  which  was 
extended  also  in  front  of  the  rooms  at  the  ends,  E  and  G.  On 
either  side  was  a  step,  both  the  steps  and  the  barrier  being 
veneered  with  white  marble.  The  tank  was  supplied  by  a  pipe 
entering  from  the  northeast ;  the  overflow  pipe,  at  the  south- 
east corner,  is  indicated  on  the  plan. 

The  rooms  E  and  G,  opening  both  on  the  swimming  tank 
and  on  the  court  with  high  arched  doorways,  were  roofed 
shallow  basins  where  the  athletes  could  give  themselves  a  pre- 
liminary cleaning  before  going  into  the  tank.  The  walls  are 
veneered  with  marble  to  a  height  of  6J  feet ;  above  are  painted 
plants,  birds,  statues,  and  nymphs,  one  of  whom  holds  a  shell 
to  catch  a  jet  of  water;  over  these  the  blue  sky.  Here,  as  in 
the  frigidarium,  the  artist  strove  to  convey  the  impression  of 
being  in  the  open  air,  in  a  beautiful  garden,  adorned  with  sculp- 
tures. A  jet  of  water  spurted  from  the  rear  wall  just  above  the 
marble  dado  ;  above  it  is  a  large  oblong  niche,  apparently  for 
a  statue. 

After  a  time  the  basin  in  G  was  filled  up,  and  covered  with  a 
mosaic  floor  of  the  same  height  as  the  threshold;  when  one 
cleaning  room  was  found  to  be  adequate,  that  was  retained 
which  had  a  separate  dressing  room,  D.  On  the  white  walls  of 
the  dressing  room  are  traces  of  the  wooden  wardrobes  that  once 
stood  against  them.  In  this  room,  the  destrictarium,  the  athletes 
disrobed,  and  rubbed  themselves  with  oil  before  engaging  in 
gymnastic  exercises,  and  to  it  they  returned  from  the  palaestra, 
in  order  to  scrape  themselves  (sc  destringerc) ;  then  they  washed 
themselves  in  the  next  room,  E,  and  finally  plunged  into  the  tank. 

The  room  of  the  official  in  charge  of  the  baths,  J,  had  win- 
dows opening  on  the  court  and  into  the  bowlers'  room,  K.  A 
large  bronze  brazier  was  found  here,  presented,  according  to 
an    inscription  on  it,  by   Marcus   Nigidius  Vaccula,  who,    as  a 


198 


POMPEII 


symbol  of  his  name,  had  the  figure  of  a  cow  (z'acca)  stamped 
in  rehef  on  the  brazier.  We  find  a  similar  brazier,  together 
with  benches,  in  the  tepidarium  of  the  baths  near  the  Forum, 
which  had  no  other  means  of  heating ;  we  naturally  infer  that 
the  furniture  here  was  intended  for  one  of  the  tepidariums,  and 
used  there  before  the  improved  method  of  heating  was  intro- 
duced. A  Nasennius  Nigidius  Vaccula,  who  died  before  54 
A.D.,  is  known  to  us  from  the  receipts  of  Caecilius  Jucundus. 
If  he  was  the  donor,  and  made  the  gift  when  he  was  a  young 
man,  the  change  of  the  system  of  heating  in  the  tepidarium 
may  have  been  made  as  early  as  20  a.d. 

The  colonnade  was  originally  uniform  on  all  the  three  sides. 
The  Doric  columns  were  of  tufa,  coated  with  fine  white  stucco. 

They  were  of  slender 
/  )^  tai^s^*\t  pi-oportions,  the  height 
being  a  trifle  over  nine 
feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
only  sixteen  inches. 
They  were  edged,  not 
fluted,  and  doubtless  car- 
ried an  entablature  with 
triglyphs,  of  which  no 
trace  remains.  In  the 
time  of  the  Empire, 
apparently     before    the 

Fig.  89.  —  Colonnade   of  the  Stabian    Baths:    capital    pqrthauake     of     6^       the 
with  section  of  entablature,  restored. 

colonnade  was  remod- 
elled in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  taste.  The  columns  re- 
ceived a  thick  coating  of  stucco,  with  flutings  indicated  by  in- 
cised lines  ;  the  lower  third  of  the  shaft  was  painted  red,  the 
upper  portion  being  left  white.  Over  the  capitals,  moulded 
in  stucco,  was  an  entablature  resting  on  thick  planks,  and  orna- 
mented with  light-colored  stucco  reliefs.  The  general  effect  may 
be  seen  from  our  illustration  (Fig.  89). 

In  this  reconstruction  the  sameness  of  the  earlier  colonnade 
was  varied  with  pleasing  irregularities.  Thus  in  front  of  the 
main  entrance  (A),  and  in  a  corresponding  position  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  court,  the  place  of  four  columns  was  taken 


THl':    STABIAN    BATHS 


199 


by  two  broad  pillars  flanked  by  half-columns,  and  carrying  a 
roof  more  than  five  feet  higher  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
colonnade.  A  similar  arrangement  has  already  been  noted  in 
the  colonnade  of  the  temple  of  Isis  (p.  174). 

The  wall  decoration  of  the  court  has  been  particularly  well 
preserved  on  the  outer  wall  of  D  and  E  (Fig.  90;  cf.  PI.  XIII). 
The  surface  is  diversified  by  fantastic  architectural  designs  in 
two  stories,  made  up  of  slender  columns  with  their  entablatures, 


Fig.  90.  —  Stabian  Baths:    southwest    cuiner  of  the   palaestra,  sliowint 
onnade  and  wall  decorated  with  stucco  reliefs. 


part    of  the  col- 


open  doorw^ays  \vith  steps  leading  up  to  them,  and  glimpses  of 
interiors.  In  the  panels  thus  outlined,  figures  of  all  kinds  stand 
out  in  white  relief  on  a  bright  red  or  blue  ground.  Above  the 
arched  doorway  Jupiter  sits,  resting  his  right  hand  on  his 
sceptre  ;  near  by,  on  a  pillar,  is  the  eagle.  Further  to  the  left 
a  satyr  offers  Hercules  a  drinking  horn.  Another  relief,  not  so 
well  preserved,  has  a  motive  suggestive  of  the  purpose  of  the 
building — Hylas  at  the  spring  seized  by  the  nymphs.  With 
this  we  may  associate  two  designs  having  reference  to  the  exer- 


266  POMPEII 

cises  of  the  palaestra  :  a  boxer,  at  the  left  of  the  doorway  of  E, 
and  at  the  right  a  man  scraping  himself  with  a  strigil.  On 
the  outer  wall  of  G  is  Daedalus,  making  wings  for  himself  and 
Icarus. 

Under  the  colonnade  at  the  rear,  a  herm  stands  close  to  the 
wall,  having  the  features  of  a  youth  with  a  garment  drawn  over 
his  head  and  covering  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  For  the 
explanation  of  it  we  are  indebted  to  Pausanias.  '  In  the  gym- 
nasium at  Phigalia,  in  Arcadia,'  says  this  writer,  'is  an  image 
of  Hermes.  It  has  the  appearance  of  a  man  wrapped  in  a 
cloak,  and  terminates  below  in  a  square  pillar  in  the  place  of 
feet.'  This  is  Hermes,  the  god  of  the  Palaestra,  here,  as  in 
Phigalia,  in  a  guise  suggestive  of  his  function  of  Psychopompus, 
the  conductor  of  departed  souls.  We  have  already  met  with 
an  example  of  the  same  type  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo. 

A  sundial  stood  on  the  roof  of  the  frigidarium  and  men's 
caldarium,  supported  by  a  foundation  of  masonry  still  visible. 
It  bore  an  Oscan  inscription,  from  which  we  learn  that  it  was 
set  up  by  the  Quaestor  Maras  Atinius,  in  accordance  with  a 
decree  of  the  council,  the  money  for  the  expenditure  being 
derived  from  fines.  The  fines  were  very  likely  collected  here, 
by  the  official  in  charge  of  the  building.  Sundials  were  erected 
also  in  the  other  baths  at  Pompeii.  They  were  a  necessity,  for 
all  such  establishments  were  conducted  on  a  schedule  of  hours. 
Hadrian  ordered  that  the  baths  in  Rome  should  be  open  from 
the  eighth  hour,  that  is,  after  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon ;  and 
a  regulation  in  regard  to  the  time  of  opening,  if  not  of  closing, 
was  probably  in  force  at  Pompeii. 

A  motley  and  tumultuous  Ufe  once  filled  the  barren  court,  the 
rooms  now  ruined  and  deserted.  The  scene  is  well  pictured  by 
Seneca  (Ep.  56) :  '  Quiet  is  by  no  means  so  necessary  for  study 
as  men  commonly  believe,'  the  philosopher  gravely  argues. 
*  I  am  living  near  a  bath  :  sounds  are  heard  on  all  sides.  Just 
imagine  for  yourself  every  conceivable  kind  of  noise  that  can 
offend  the  ear.  The  men  of  more  sturdy  muscle  go  through 
their  exercises,  and  swing  their  hands  heavily  weighted  with 
lead :  I  hear  their  groans  when  they  strain  themselves,  or  the 


THE    STABIAN    BATHS  201 

whistling  of  labored  breath  when  they  breathe  out  after  having 
held  in.  If  one  is  rather  lazy,  and  merely  has  himself  rubbed 
with  unguents,  I  hear  the  blows  of  the  hand  slapping  his  shoul- 
ders, the  sound  varying  according  as  the  massagist  strikes  with 
fiat  or  hollow  palm.  If  a  ballplayer  begins  to  play  and  to 
count  his  throws,  it's  all  up  for  the  time  being.  Meanwhile 
there  is  a  sudden  brawl,  or  a  thief  is  caught,  or  there  is  some 
one  in  the  bath  who  loves  to  hear  the  sound  of  his  own  voice ; 
and  the  bathers  plunge  into  the  swimming  tank  with  loud 
splashing.  These  noises,  however,  are  not  without  some  sem- 
blance of  excuse ;  but  the  hair  plucker  from  time  to  time  raises 
his  thin,  shrill  voice  in  order  to  attract  attention,  and  is  only 
still  himself  when  he  is  forcing  cries  of  pain  from  some  one 
else,  from  whose  armpits  he  plucks  the  hairs.  And  above  the 
din  you  hear  the  shouts  of  those  who  are  selling  cakes,  sausages, 
and  sweetmeats,  besides  all  the  hawkers  of  stuff  from  the  cook- 
shops,  each  with  a  different  and  characteristic  cry.' 
Such  were  the  distractions  of  a  Roman  bath. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 

THE  BATHS  NEAR    THE  FORUM 

The  bathing  establishment  in  the  block  north  of  the  Forum 
is  smaller  and  simpler  in  its  arrangements  than  that  described 
in  the  last  chapter,  but  the  parts  are  essentially  the  same.  Here 
also  we  find  a  court,  with  a  colonnade  on  three  sides ;  a  sys- 
tem of  baths  for  men, 
comprising  a  dress- 
ing room  (I)  with  a 
small  round  frigida- 
rium  (II)  opening  off 
from  it,  a  tepidarium 
(III),  and  a  caldarium 
(IV);  a  similar  system 
for  women,  the  place 
of  the  frigidarium  be- 
ing taken  by  a  tank  for 
cold  baths  (2)  in  the 
dressing  room ;  and  a 
long  narrow  furnace 
room  between  the  two 
baths  (V).  On  three 
sides  of  the  establish- 
ment are  shops,  in 
connection  with  which 
are  several  inns. 

These  baths  were 
built  shortly  after  80  B.C.,  about  the  time  that  Ulius  and  Ani- 
nius  repaired  the  Stabian  Baths ;  the  characteristic  masonry, 
with  quasi-reticulate  facing,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Small 
Theatre  and  the  Amphitheatre.  The  names  of  the  builders 
are  known  from  an  inscription  found  in  duplicate  :  L.  Cacsius 

202 


Fig.  91. —  Plan  oi  the  baths  near  the  Forum. 
A,  A'.    Street  entrances  to  court.  C.    Area. 


B.    Colonnade. 

I -IV.    Men's  baths. 

I.    Apodyterium. 
II.    Frigidarium. 

III.  Tepidarium. 

IV.  Caldarium. 
V.    Furnace  room. 


D.    Court  back  of  women's  baths. 

1-4.  Women's  baths. 

1.  Apodyterium. 

2.  Basin  for  cold  baths. 

3.  Tepidarium. 

4.  Caldarium. 
d.  Sundial. 


THE    BATHS    NEAR   THE    FORUM  203 

C.  f.  d\_ii!iiu']  T'[//-]  /[///-/]  d\_icNndo'],  C.  Occius  M.  /.,  L.  Ni- 
nuviiiis  A.  /.  11  v\Jyi~\  c/[r]  d\_ccuyionnm^  s\_e]itentia\  ex 
pcq\jtiiia\  pnbl^ica'\  fac\jundiim'\  ciirai\unt\  prob\_anint'\ 
q\_uc\  Thus  we  see  that  the  contract  for  the  building  was 
let  and  the  work  approved  by  Lucius  Caesius,  duumvir  with 
judiciary  authority,  —  his  colleague  had  probably  died  since 
election  and  the  vacancy  had  not  yet  been  filled,  —  and  the  two 
aediles,  Occius  and  Niraemius,  who  are  here  styled  '  duumvirs,' 
for  reasons  already  explained  (p.  12);  the  cost  was  defrayed 
by  an  appropriation  from  the  public  treasury.  Though  these 
Baths  are  of  later  construction  than  the  Stabian  Baths,  they 
seem  more  ancient  because  fewer  changes  were  made  in  them. 

The  court  here  was  not  a  palaestra  ;  it  was  small  for  gym- 
nastic exercises,  and  was  not  provided  with  a  swimming  tank 
and  dressing  rooms.     The  open  space  was  occupied  by  a  garden. 

The  colonnade  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  court  had 
slender  columns  standing  far  apart,  with  a  low  and  simple 
entablature  ;  on  the  east  side  the  columns  were  replaced  by 
pillars  carrying  low  arches,  which  served  as  a  support  for 
a  gallery  affording  a  pleasant  view  of  the  garden.  This 
gallery  was  accessible  from  the  upper  rooms  of  several 
inns  along  the  street  leading  north  from  the  Forum,  whose 
guests  no  doubt  found  diversion  in  watching  what  was  going 
on  below — an  advantage  that  may  have  been  taken  into 
account  by  the  city  officials  in  fixing  the  rent.  There  are 
benches  on  the  north  side  of  the  court,  and  at  the  middle  a 
deep  recess,  or  exedra  {b),  making  a  pleasant  retreat  for  quiet 
conversation.  The  entrance  from  the  frequented  street  at  the 
left  (A)  is  so  arranged  that  passers-by  could  not  look  in ;  near 
the  entrance  from  the  street  on  the  opposite  side  (A')  is  a 
closet  (yc').  The  decoration  of  the  court  was  extremely  simple. 
Columns  and  walls  were  unpainted ;  on  the  lower  parts,  stucco 
with  bits  of  brick  in  it ;  above,  white  plaster. 

From  the  court  a  corridor  (/?)  led  into  the  men's  apodyterium, 
which  could  be  entered  also  on  the  north  side  from  the  Strada 
delle  Terme.  This  room  contained  benches,  as  shown  on  the 
plan ;  but  there  were  no  niches,  as  in  the  dressing  rooms  of 
the  Stabian  Baths,  and  wooden  shelves  or   lockers  may  have 


>04 


POMPEII 


been  used  instead.  The  small  dark  chamber  at  the  north  end 
(/)  may  have  been  used  as  a  storeroom  for  unguents,  such  as 
the  Greeks  called  elacothesimn.  It  seems  to  have  been  thought 
necessary  here  to  connect  the  dressing  room  with  the  furnace 
room  (V)  by  a  separate  passage. 

Light  was  admitted  to  the  dressing  room  through  a  window 
in  the  lunette  at  the  south  end,  closed  by  a  pane  of  glass  half 
an  inch  thick,  set  in  a  bronze  frame  that  turned  on  two  pivots. 


Fig.  92.  —  Baths  near  the  Forum  :  interior  of  the  men's  tepidarium. 

On  either  side  of  the  window  are  huge  Tritons  in  stucco  relief, 
with  vases  on  their  shoulders,  surrounded  by  dolphins ;  under- 
neath is  a  mask  of  Oceanus,  and  in  the  same  wall  is  a  niche 
for  a  lamp,  similar  to  that  seen  in  Fig.  92,  blackened  by  the  soot.- 
The  frigidarium  is  well  preserved.  In  all  its  arrangements 
it  is  almost  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  one  in  the  Stabian 
Baths,  but  the  scheme  of  decoration,  suggestive  of  a  garden, 
is  less  realistically  carried  out,  the  ground  being  yellow  ;  and 
the   round   window   at   the    apex   of  the    domed  ceiling    has   a 


THE    BATHS    NEAR   THE    FORUM 


205 


rectangular  extension  toward  the  south  in  order  to  admit  as 
much  sunlight  as  possible. 

The  tepidarium,  as  will  be  seen  from  our  illustration  (Fig.  92), 
is  in  the  condition  of  the  tepidarium s  of  the  Stabian  Baths 
before  the  improved  arrangements  for  heating  were  introduced. 
There  were  no  warm  air  chambers  in  the  walls  or  the  floor. 
At  one  end  we  see  the  remains  of  the  large  bronze  brazier  and 
benches  (the  iron  grating  is  modern)  presented  by  Vaccula,  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made  (p.  197).  The  feet  of 
the  benches  are  modelled  to  represent  hoofs,  each  with  a  cow's 
head  above. 

There  are  niches  in  the  walls,  as  formerly  in  the  tepidariums 
of  the  Stabian  Baths,  but  several  of  them  for  some  reason  have 


n/m     s/    ^ 


Fig.  93.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  men's  caldarium.    V. 

been  walled  up.  Wild-visaged,  muscular  Atlantes  stand  out 
in  bold  projection  on  the  front  of  the  partitions  between  the 
niches,  sustaining  a  cornice  upon  their  uplifted  hands.  The 
window,  seen  in  the  illustration  above  the  lamp  niche,  was 
closed,  as  that  in  the  dressing  room,  by  a  pane  of  glass  in  a 
bronze  frame. 

The  decoration  of  the  ceiling,  unfortunately  only  in  part 
preserved,  is  well  designed.  Along  the  lower  edge  are  ara- 
besques, interwoven  in  a  scroll  pattern,  in  white  stucco  on  a 
white  background.  Above  these  are  panels  of  different  sizes, 
in  which  raised  white  ornaments  and  figures  appear  on  a  white, 
blue,  or  violet  ground  ;  among  the  motives  are  Cupid  leaning  on 
his  bow,  Apollo  riding  on  a  griffin,  Ganymede  with  the  eagle, 
and  Cupids  on  sea  horses. 

The  caldarium  is  w'ell  preserved  ;  only  a  j^art  of  the  vaulted 


2o6  POMPEII 

ceiling  has  been  destroyed.  The  hollow  space  for  hot  air  in 
the  floor  and  walls  is  indicated  in  our  section  (Fig.  93).  Here 
we  see  at  the  right,  the  bath  basin,  lined  with  white  marble, 
with  its  sloping  back  affording  a  comfortable  support  for  the 
bathers ;  at  the  other  end  is  the  apsidal  niche  {schola)  with  the 
labrum.  The  direction  of  Vitruvius,  that  the  labrum  should  be 
placed  under  a  window  in  such  a  way  that  the  shadows  of  those 
standing  around  should  not  fall  on  it,  is  here  literally  observed. 
There  were  three  other  small  windows  at  the  same  end  of  the 
room,  and  a  niche  for  a  lamp. 

We  learn  from  an  inscription  on  the  labrum,  in  bronze  letters, 
that  it  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Gnaeus  Melissaeus  Aper 
and  Marcus  Staius  Rufus,  who  were  duumvirs  in  3-4  a.d.,  at 
a  cost  of  5250  sesterces,  not  far  from  S270.  This  room  seems 
to  have  received  its  final  form  before  the  new  method  of  heat- 
ing the  water  in  the  alveus  came  into  vogue ;  there  is  no  trace 
of  a  bronze  heater,  such  as  that  found  in  connection  with  the 
bath  basin  of  the  women's  caldarium  at  the  Stabian  Baths.  The 
simple  decoration  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  usual  orna- 
mentation of  the  later  styles.  Above  a  low  marble  base  arc 
yellow  walls  divided  by  dark  red  pilasters,  shown  in  Fig.  93. 
These  support  a  projecting  flat  cornice  of  dark  red,  whose  sur- 
face is  richly  ornamented  with  stucco  reliefs.  The  ceiling  is 
moulded  in  flutings  running  up  to  the  crown  of  the  vault ;  only 
in  the  ceiling  of  the  schola  do  we  find  raised  figures. 

The  rooms  of  the  women's  baths  are  small,  their  arrangement 
being  determined  in  part  by  the  irregular  shape  of  the  corner 
of  the  building  in  which  they  are  placed  ;  but  the  system  of 
heating  is  more  complete  than  in  the  men's  baths,  for  both  the 
tepidarium  (3)  and  the  caldarium  (4)  were  provided  with  hollow 
floors  and  hot  air  spaces  in  the  walls  extending  to  the  lunettes 
and  the  ceiling.  The  vaulted  ceilings  of  both  of  these  rooms,  as 
well  as  of  the  apodyterium,  are  preserved ;  but  the  caldarium 
has  lost  its  hollow  floor  and  walls,  together  with  the  bath  basin, 
which  was  placed  in  a  large  niche  at  the  right  as  one  entered ; 
only  the  base  of  the  labrum  remains.  The  condition  of  this 
room  may  be  due  to  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63,  the  neces- 
sary repairs  not  having  been  made  before  the  eruption.     There 


I 


THE    BATHS   NEAR  THE    FORUM  207 

was  no  connection  between  the  women's  baths  and  the  court 
at  the  rear  (D),  which  had  a  separate  entrance  from  the  street. 
At  the  women's  entrance  there  was  a  narrow  waiting  room  for 
attendants,  separated  from  the  street  by  a  thin  wall  and  pro- 
tected by  a  roof. 

The  furnace  room  could  be  entered  at  one  end  from  the 
street.  The  three  cylindrical  tanks  for  hot,  lukewarm,  and  cold 
water  were  arranged  as  in  the  Stabian  Baths.  Beyond  the 
tanks  is  a  cistern  (g-),  which  was  supplied  in  part  by  rain  water 
from  the  roof,  in  part  by  a  feed  pipe  connected  with  the  water 
system  of  the  city.  The  raised  walk  (/i)  on  the  right  side  of  the 
furnace  room  is  continued  to  the  small  court  (D)  in  the  corner 
of  which  is  a  stairway  leading  to  the  flat  roof  of  the  men's 
caldarium.  From  this  point  of  vantage,  the  view  over  the 
landscape  and  the  sea  must  have  been  beautiful  in  antiquity, 
as  it  is  to-day. 

A  sundial  doubtless  stood  on  the  larger  of  the  two  pillars  in 
the  court  (d),  which  is  about  seventeen  feet  high  and  nearly  five 
feet  thick  at  the  base ;  on  the  smaller  pillar  was  perhaps  a  statue 
or  other  ornamental  object  of  the  sort  frequently  seen  in  wall 
paintings. 


CHAPTER    XXIX 

THE   CEiVTRAL   BATHS 

Seneca  in  an  entertaining  letter  (Ep.  86)  gives  an  account  of 
a  visit  about  60  a.d.  to  the  villa  at  Liternum  in  which  the  Elder 
Scipio  had  lived  in  the  years  immediately  preceding  his  death, 
in  183  B.C.  The  philosopher  was  particularly  struck  with  the 
bath,  the  simplicity  of  which  he  contrasts  forcibly  with  the  luxu- 
rious appointments  of  his  own  time.  We  cannot  follow  him 
through  the  extended  disquisition  —  he  speaks  of  various  refine- 
ments of  luxury  of  which  we  find  no  traces  at  Pompeii ;  but  he 
mentions  as  the  most  striking  difference  the  lack  of  light  in  the 
old  bath,  with  its  small  apertures  more  like  chinks  than  win- 
dows, while  in  his  day  the  baths  were  provided  with  large  win- 
dows protected  by  glass,  and  people  '  wanted  to  be  parboiled  in 
full  daylight,'  besides  having  the  enjoyment  meanwhile  of  a 
beautiful  view.  Some  such  feeling  as  this  we  have  in  turning 
from  the  two  older  baths  at  Pompeii  —  one  of  pre-Roman  ori- 
gin, the  other  dating  from  the  time  of  Sulla  —  to  the  Central 
Baths,  which  were  in  process  of  construction  at  the  time  of  the 
eruption,  and  had  been  designed  in  accordance  with  the  pre- 
vailing mode  of  life. 

This  extensive  establishment,  at  the  corner  of  Stabian  and 
Nola  streets,  occupied  the  whole  of  a  block ;  but  a  large  part  of 
the  frontage  on  the  two  streets  mentioned  was  utilized  for  shops. 
Notwithstanding  the  size  of  the  building,  it  had  only  a  single 
series  of  apartments,  which  were  laid  out  on  a  correspondingly 
large  scale.  It  was  doubtless  built  for  men,  although  the  use  of 
it  at  certain  hours  by  women  may  possibly  have  been  contem- 
plated, in  case  the  women's  baths  at  the  two  other  establish- 
ments should  be  overcrowded. 

Entrances  from  three  streets  lead  to  the  ample  palaestra, 
from  which  the  remains  of  the  houses  demolished  to  make  room 

208 


I 


THE   CENTRAL   BATHS 


209 


for  it  had  not  yet  been  entirely  removed.  On  the  northeast 
side  is  the  excavation  for  a  large  swimming  tank  {h\  and  for 
a  water  channel  leading  to  the  closet  {e).  In  order  to  have 
water  at  hand  for  building  purposes,  the  masons  had  built  a  low 
wall  around  an  old  im- 
pluvium  on  the  south 
side  (shown  on  the  plan, 
Fig.  94)  into  which  a 
feed  pipe  ran.  For  a 
short  distance  on  the 
north  side  the  stylobate 
had  been  made  ready  for 
the  building  of  the  colon- 
nade ;  elsewhere  only 
the  preliminary  work 
had  been  done.  The 
rooms  at  the  southeast 
corner  (/,  g)  were  no 
doubt  intended  for  dress- 
ing rooms  for  the  palaes- 
tra and  the  plunge  bath. 

Two  small  rooms  {h,  c)  open  upon  the  north  entrance  of  the 
palaestra ;  one  of  them,  perhaps,  was  to  be  a  ticket  office,  for 
the  adjustment  of  matters  relating  to  admission,  the  other  a 
cloak  room,  in  which  the  capsarius  would  guard  the  valuables  of 
the  bathers. 

Two  doors  admit  the  visitor  from  the  palaestra  to  the  series 
of  bath  rooms,  one  of  them  opening  from  the  north  end  of  the 
colonnade.  The  first  room  (/,  /)  was  designed  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  a  store,  with  four  booths  {k,  m,  ;/,  0)  opening  into 
it  for  the  sale  of  edibles  and  bathers'  conveniences. 

The  apodyterium  (/),  tepidarium  {q),  and  caldarium  {s)  had 
each  three  large  windows  opening  on  the  palaestra  ;  two  of  those 
belonging  to  the  tepidarium  are  seen  in  Fig.  95.  None  of  the 
rooms  were  finished,  though  a  hollow  floor  and  hollow  walls  had 
been  built  in  the  tepidarium,  caldarium,  and  Laconicum.  The 
bath  basins  yet  lacked  their  marble  linings,  and  the  two  furnaces 
(at  X  and  j)  had  not  been  built. 


Fig.  94. —  Plan  of  the  Central  Batlis. 

d.    Palaestra.  q.   Tepidarium. 

h.    Swimming  tank.  r.    Laconicum. 

/',  /.    Stores.  J.    Caldarium. 

/.    Apodyterium.  ^,y-    Furnaces. 


—    I 


POMPEII 


Five  smaller  windows  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  caldarium 
looked  out  on  a  narrow  garden,  about  which  the  workmen  had 
commenced  to  build  a  wall  to  cut  off  the  sight  of  the  firemen 
passing  to  and  fro  between  the  two  furnaces.  The  caldarium 
was  so  placed  as  to  receive  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
sunlight,  particularly  in  the  afternoon  hours,  when  it  would  be 
used;  this  was  in  accordance  with  a  recommendation  of  Vitru- 
vius,  who  says  that  the  windows  of  baths  ought,  whenever  possi- 
ble, to  face  the  southwest,  otherwise  the  south. 


Fig.  95.  —  Mew  of  the  Central  Baths,  looking  from  the  palaestra  into  the  tepidarium. 

The  contrast  is  indeed  marked  between  the  numerous  large 
windows  here,  with  their  attractive  outlook,  and  the  small 
apertures,  high  in  the  walls  and  ceiling,  through  which  light 
was  admitted  in  the  older  baths. 

In  the  Central  Baths  there  was  no  frigidarium  ;  but  a  large 
basin  for  cold  baths,  nearly  five  feet  deep,  was  placed  in  the 
dressing  room  opposite  the  windows.  Supply  pipes  were  so 
laid  that  jets  would  spring  into  the  basin  from  three  small 
niches,  one  in  each  wall ;  the  overflow  was  conducted  by 
pipes  under  the  floor  to  a  catch  basin  (zv),  and  thence  to  the 
street. 


THE    CENTRAL   BATHS  211 

The  tepidarium  ((/) — -here,  as  usual,  relatively  small  —  is  con- 
nected with  the  apodyterium  by  two  doors,  and  similarly  with 
the  caldarium.  The  latter  room  has  a  bath  basin  at  each  end, 
thus  affording  accommodations  for  twenty-six  or  twenty-eight 
bathers  at  once ;  at  the  middle  of  the  southeast  side  was  a 
smaller  basin  that  took  the  place  of  the  labrum.  The  hot  air 
flues  leading  from  the  furnaces  under  the  bath  basins  were 
already  built,  and  above  them  openings  were  left  for  semi- 
cyUndrical  heaters  like  that  in  the  women's  caldarium  of  the 
Stabian  Baths. 

The  round  sweating  room,  Laconicum,  was  made  more  ample 
by  means  of  four  semicircular  niches,  and  lighted  by  three 
small  round  windows  just  above  the  cornice  of  the  domed  ceil- 
ing. There  was  probably  another  round  opening  at  the  apex, 
designed  for  a  bronze  shutter,  which  could  be  opened  or  closed 
from  below  by  means  of  a  chain,  so  as  to  regulate  the  tempera- 
ture. Doors  led  into  the  Laconicum  from  both  the  tepidarium 
and  the  caldarium. 

The  oblong  court  between  the  bath  rooms  and  the  street  on 
the  northeast  side  was  apparently  to  be  laid  out  as  a  garden. 
At  the  north  end  the  workmen  had  begun  to  build  pillars  for  a 
short  colonnade.  A  large  square  foundation  for  a  sundial 
stands  near  the  opposite  corner. 


CHAPTER    XXX 

THE  AMPHITHEATRE 

In  the  southeast  corner  of  the  city,  at  a  distance  from  the 
other  excavations,  lies  the  Amphitheatre,  the  scene  of  gladia- 
torial combats.  The  Pompeians  called  it  '  the  show,'  spcxtacula, 
as  in  the  inscription,  preserved  in  two  copies,  that  gives  us 
the  names  of  the  builders:  C.  Qitinctius  C.  f.  Wilgus,  M. 
Porciiis  M.  f\iliiis~\  duo  vir\_i'\  qiimq\iieiinalcs~\  colonial  hojwris 
caussa  spectacula  de  sua  peq\jinia\  fac\innda\  coer\arjmt\  et 
colonels  locum  In  perpetuoni  dcder\_nnt\  According  to  this,  the 
Amphitheatre  was  built  by  the  same  men.  Valgus  and  Porcius, 
who  are  already  known  to  us  as  the  builders  of  the  Small 
Theatre  (p.  153);  and  they  presented  it  to  the  city  in  recogni- 
tion of  the  honor  conferred  upon  them  by  their  reelection  as 
duumvirs.  The  Amphitheatre  may  thus  have  been  finished 
half  a  decade  later  than  the  Theatre,  but  in  any  case  it  belongs 
to  the  earliest  years  of  the  Roman  colony,  —  as  might  be  in- 
ferred, in  default  of  other  evidence,  from  the  archaic  spelling 
of  the  inscription,  and  the  character  of  the  masonry,  which  is 
like  that  of  the  Small  Theatre  and  the  baths  north  of  the  Forum 
(p.  41). 

The  colonists,  however,  did  not  receive  from  Rome  their  im- 
pulse to  erect  such  a  building.  The  passion  for  gladiatorial 
combats  was  developed  in  Campania  earlier,  and  manifested 
itself  more  strongly,  than  in  Latium.  Strabo's  statement  that 
gladiators  were  brought  forward  at  Campanian  banquets,  in 
larger  or  smaller  numbers  according  to  the  rank  of  the  guests, 
has  reference  to  the  period  before  the  Second  Punic  War ;  but 
it  was  considered  a  noteworthy  event  in  Rome  when,  in  264  B.C., 
gladiators  engaged  in  combat  in  the  Forum  Boarium  in  celebra- 
tion of  funeral  rites,  as  also  when,  on  a  similar  occasion  in 
216  B.C.,  twenty-two  pairs  fought  in  the  Forum.     Buildings  were 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE 


213 


erected  for  gladiatorial  shows  in  Campanian  towns  earlier  than 
at  the  Capital.  As  late  as  the  year  46  b.c.  the  spectators  who 
witnessed  the  games  given  by  Julius  Caesar  sat  on  wooden  seats 
supported  by  temporary  staging ;  and  the  first  stone  amphi- 
theatre in  Rome  was  built  by  Statilius  Taurus  in  29  B.C.,  almost 
half  a  century  after  the  quinquennial  duumvirate  of  Valgus  and 
Porcius.  The  Amphitheatre  at  Pompeii  is  the  oldest  known 
to  us  from  either  literary  or  monumental  sources. 

In  comparison  with  later  and  more  imposing  structures,  our 
Amphitheatre  seems  indeed  unpretentious.  Its  exterior  eleva- 
tion is  relatively  low  (Fig.  96);  as  our  section  shows  (Fig.  99), 
the  arena  and  the  lower  ranges  of  seats  are  in  a  great  hollow 


Fig.  g6. —  The  Amphitheatre,  been  from  the  west  side. 

excavated  for  the  purpo.se  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 
The  dimensions  (length  460  feet,  breadth  345)  are  small  when 
compared  with  those  of  the  CoHseum  (615  and  510  feet,  respec- 
tively) or  even  the  amphitheatres  at  Capua  or  Pozzuoli ;  and 
the  lack  of  artistic  form  is  noteworthy. 

The  exhibitions  held  here  must  also  have  been  on  a  modest 
scale.  There  were  no  underground  chambers,  below  the  arena, 
with  devices  by  means  of  which  wild  beasts  could  be  lifted  up 
into  view  and  the  sand  suddenly  covered  with  new  combatants. 
The  limited  means  of  this  small  city  were  not  adequate  to  make 
provision  for  the  elaborate  equipment  and  costly  decoration 
found  in  the  amphitheatres  of  larger  towns. 

The  arena,  a  view  of  which  is  given  in  Plate  VI,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  about  6.]  feet  high.  This  wall  was  covered 
with  frescoes  which,  still  fresh  at  the  time  of  excavation,  are 


14 


POMPEII 


now  known  to  us  only  from  copies  in  the  Naples  Museum. 
They  consisted  of  alternate  broad  and  narrow  panels,  the  latter 
containing  each  a  herm  between  two  columns,  while  the  larger 
spaces  presented  alternately  a  conventional  pattern  and  a 
scene  connected  with  the  games.  One  of  the  scenes  gives  an 
interesting  glimpse  of  the  preparations  for  the  combat  (Fig.  97). 
In  the  middle  we  see  the  overseer  marking  out  with  a  long  staff 
the  ring  within  which  the  combatants  must  fight.  At  the  right 
a  gladiator  stands,  partly  armed  ;  two  attendants  are  bringing 
him  a  helmet  and  a  sword.  A  hornblower,  also  partly  armed, 
stands  at  the  left ;  and  behind  him  two  companions,  squatting 


Fig.  97. —  Preparations  for  the  combat.     Wall  painting,  from  the  Amphitheatre. 

on  the  ground,  make  ready  his  helmet  and  shield.  At  either 
end  of  the  scene,  in  the  background,  is  an  image  of  a  Winged 
Victory  with  a  wreath  and  palm. 

The  limestone  coping  of  the  wall  about  the  arena  shows 
traces  of  iron  in  the  joints  between  the  blocks,  apparently 
remains  of  a  grating  designed  to  protect  the  spectators  from 
attacks  by  the  infuriated  wild  beasts.  The  traces  are  not  visible 
all  the  way  around,  but  this  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  sup- 
position that  repairs  were  in  progress  at  the  time  of  the  eruption. 

Two  broad  corridors  (3,  3A)  connect  the  ends  of  the  arena 
with  the  outside  of  the  building.  The  one  at  the  north  end, 
toward  Vesuvius,  follows  a  straight  line ;  the  other  bends 
sharply  to  the  right  in  order  to  avoid  the  city  wall,  which  bounds 
the  structure  on  the  south  and  east  sides.  By  these  corridors 
the  gladiators  entered  the  arena,  first  in  festal  array,  passing 


THE    AMPHITHEATRE  215 

in  stately  procession  across  the  sand  from  one  entrance  to 
the  other,  then  coming  forth  in  pairs  as  they  were  summoned 
to  mortal  combat. 

At   the   middle  of    the   west   side   there   is   a   third   passage, 
narrow   and   low   (e);    this   is   the   grewsome   corridor   through 


Fig.  98. —  Plan  of  the  Amphitheatre  at  different  levels  showing,  above,  the  arrangement 
of  the  seats  ;  below,  the  arrangement  of  the  vaulted  passages  under  the  seats. 

1.  Podium.  11,11.    Outer  double  stairways  to  terrace. 

2.  Gallery.  12,  12.    Single  stairways  to  terrace. 

3.  3.\.    Entrances  to  arena.  13.   Tower  of  city  wall. 

4.  4.    Vaulted  corridor.  14.    City  wall. 

5.  Passage  to  death  gate.  a.    First  praecinctio. 

6.  Iina  cavea.  i-    Second  praecinctio. 

7.  Media  cavea.  c,  d.    Side  entrances. 

8.  Summa  cavea.  e.   Death  Gate. 

9.  Stairs  of  balcony.  /,/./    Dens. 
10.    Terrace. 


which  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  dragged  by  means  of  hooks, 
its  entrance  being  the  Porta  Libitinensis,  'Death  Gate.'  Near 
the  inner  end  of  each  of  the  three  corridors  is  a  small,  dark 
chamber  (/)  the  purpose  of  which  is  unknown.      It  has  been 


2i6  POMPEII 

suggested  that  wild  animals  may  have  been  confined  here,  but 
larger  and  more  easily  accessible  rooms  would  have  been  re- 
quired for  this  purpose.  They  may  have  been  storerooms  for 
appliances  of  various  kinds  required  for  the  exhibitions. 

The  seats,  of  which  there  are* thirty-five  rows,  have  the  same 
form  as  those  in  the  Small  Theatre,  and  are  of  the  same  mate- 
rial, gray  tufa.  They  are  arranged  in  three  divisions, — the 
lowest,  ivia  cavca,  having  five  rows ;  the  middle  division,  media 
cavea,  twelve  ;  and  the  highest,  sum7na  cavea,  eighteen  (Figs.  98, 
99).  In  the  middle  section  of  the  ima  cavea  on  each  side  the 
place  of  the  seats  is  taken  by  four  low,  broad  ledges,  set  aside 
for  members  of  the  city  council,  who  could  place  upon  them 
the  seats  of  honor,  biscllia,  to  the  use  of  which  they  were 
entitled.  At  the  middle  of  the  east  side  the  second  ledge  is 
interrupted  for  a  distance  of  ten  feet  (the  break  is  shown  in 
Plate  VI),  a  double  width  being  thus  given  to  the  lowest.  This 
place  was  designed  for  seats  of  special  honor,  and  was,  no  doubt, 
reserved  for  the  official  who  provided  the  games,  and  his  associ- 
ates. On  the  same  side  the  ledges  are  extended  into  the  next 
section  on  the  south,  the  continuity  of  the  seats  being  inter- 
rupted by  a  low  barrier.  This  supplementary  section  was,  per- 
haps, intended  for  certain  freedmen,  as  the  Augustales  (p.  100), 
who  had  the  right  to  use  bisellia,  but  who  nevertheless  could 
not  become  members  of  the  city  council,  and  were  not  ranked 
on  a  social  equality  with  the  occupants  of  the  middle  section. 

The  seats  of  the  ima  cavea  and  media  cavea  were  reached 
through  a  vaulted  passage  (4),  which,  in  accordance  with  ancient 
usage,  we  may  call  a  crypt.  It  ran  under  the  first  seats  of  the 
second  range,  and  stairs  led  from  it  to  both  divisions.  It  might 
be  entered  either  from  the  two  broad  corridors  leading  to  the 
arena,  or  directly  from  the  west  side  by  means  of  two  separate 
passages  {c,  d,  on  the  plan).  It  is,  however,  interrupted  at  the 
middle  on  each  side  of  the  Amphitheatre.  On  the  west  side 
the  prolongation  of  the  crypt  would  have  interfered  with  the 
use  of  the  corridor  leading  to  the  Death  Gate ;  but  as  no  such 
reason  existed  for  blocking  the  east  branch,  it  is  probable  that 
the  designers  of  the  Amphitheatre  interrupted  both  branches 
of  the  crypt  in  order  to  force  the  spectators  who  had  seats  in 


UJ 

H 

O 
2 

O 
2 

y: 
o 
o 

OJ 

< 

UJ 

X 
CL 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE  217 

the  lower  and  middle  divisions  of  the  south  half  of  the  struc- 
ture to  enter  and  leave  by  the  somewhat  inconvenient  south 
entrances,  which  are  situated  in  an  angle  of  the  city  wall.  Had 
the  crypt  been  carried  completely  around,  the  crowd  would 
always  have  pressed  into  the  building  through  the  north  en- 
trances, which  opened  toward  the  city,  thus  causing  confusion, 
if  not  danger,  on  occasions  of  special  interest. 

In  the  corridor  leading  from  the  north  entrance,  as  may  be 
seen  on  the  plan,  a  row  of  stones  with  square  holes  in  them 
were  placed  in  the  pavement  near  the  left  wall.  In  these  stakes 
could  be  set  and  connected  by  ropes,  thus  making  a  narrow  pas- 
sageway along  the  side.  The  purpose  of  the  arrangement  is 
not  difficult  to  understand.  Through  the  north  corridor  the 
gladiators  entered   and   left  the  building,  and  the  wild  beasts 


Fig.  99.  —  Transverse  section  of  the  Amphitheatre. 

were  brought  in  ;  so  provision  had  to  be  made  to  give  them  a 
passage  separate  from  that  used  by  the  spectators.  Before  the 
commencement  of  an  exhibition  the  whole  entrance  was  accessi- 
ble to  the  populace,  which  eagerly  crowded  forward  to  secure 
seats  in  good  season.  When  they  had  for  the  most  part  found 
their  places,  the  barrier  was  set  up,  and  only  a  narrow  alley 
was  left  along  the  east  wall  for  belated  spectators  who  wished 
to  pass  into  the  crypt  on  that  side ;  the  rest  of  the  passage  was 
reserved  for  the  gladiators,  and  the  spectators  whose  seats  were 
reached  from  the  opposite  branches  of  the  crypt  were  obliged  to 
use  the  side  entrance  {c). 

The  middle  division  was  separated  from  the  sum  ma  cavea  (8) 
by  a  low  parapet  with  a  narrow  passage  (ypraecinctio,  b)  on  the 
upper  side.  The  seats  of  the  summa  cavea  could  be  reached  in 
two  ways,  by  passing  through  the  crypt  and  up  the  long  flights 
of  stairs  that  led  through  the  middle  division  to  the  top  (best 
seen  in  Fig.  99),  or  by  mounting  the  stairs  on  the  out.side  of  the 


2i8  POMPEII 

building  to  the  terrace  (lo),  which  has  the  same  level  as  the 
highest  rows  of  seats ;  it  is  also  of  the  same  height  as  the  city 
wall,  with  which  it  is  merged  on  the  south  and  east  sides.  The 
terrace  was  no  doubt  the  principal  means  of  access ;  ample  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  crowd  by  building  two  large  double 
stairways  (ii),  with  smaller  single  flights  at  the  corners  where 
the  terrace  joined  the  city  wall  (12). 

Between  the  terrace  and  the  seats  of  the  summa  cavea  was 
an  elevated  gallery,  divided  up  into  small  boxes,  about  four  feet 
square  ;  under  the  row  of  boxes  w^ere  vaulted 
vomitoria,  making  the  seats  of  the  summa  cavea 
accessible  from  the  terrace.     A   passage  ran 

t  ig.  100.  —  Plan  of  the  .  . 

gallery.  aloug  the  outsidc  of  the  boxes,  with  steps  lead- 

I.  Steps.  2.  Bo.xes.  jj^g  fj-Qm  thc  terracc  ;  only  every  third  box  was 
connected  with  this  passage,  however,  the  other  two  of  the  group 
being  entered  from  a  narrow  ramp  along  the  front  (Fig.  100). 

The  Amphitheatre  had  a  seating  capacity  of  about  twenty 
thousand  persons.  We  have  no  information  in  regard  to  the 
distribution  of  seats,  but  it  may  safely  be  assumed,  from  the 
arrangements  known  to  have  existed  elsewhere,  that  the  low- 
est division  was  reserved  for  the  city  officials  with  their  friends 
and  other  prominent  people;  that  an  admission  fee  was  charged 
for  the  seats  of  the  middle  division  ;  and  that  the  seats  of  the 
upper  division  w^ere  free.  The  gallery  was  doubtless  set  aside 
for  women,  who  were  permitted  by  a  regulation  promulgated  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  to  have  a  place  only  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Amphitheatre. 

Besides  the  inscription  giving  the  names  of  the  builders 
(p.  212)  there  are  several  others  of  interest  in  connection  with 
the  building.  Four  of  them,  cut  in  large  letters  in  the  travertine 
coping  of  the  wall  about  the  arena,  commemorate  the  construc- 
tion of  seats.  One  reads  :  L.  Saghmis  II vir  i.  d.  p7'\o'\  lti\dis\ 
lu[niinibHs'\  ex  d\ecjirionimi\  d\ecreto'\  cnn\_enni\,  —  'Lucius 
Saginius,  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority,  in  accordance  with  a 
resolution  of  the  city  council  (constructed)  a  section  of  seats  in  the 
place  of  the  games  and  illumination,'  that  otherwise  he  would 
have  been  required  to  provide.  Another  of  the  series  is  even 
more  abbreviated,  but  the  meaning  is  clear :  mag  •  pag  •  aug  •  f  • 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE 


219 


s  •  PRO  •  LUD  •  EX  •  1)  •  I),  that  is,  JMagistri  Pagi  Augitsti  Felicis 
Subnrbani pro  ludis  ex  dccnrionnui  dccrcto,  —  '  The  officials  of  the 
suburb  Pagus  Augustus  Felix  by  authority  of  a  resolution  of 
the  city  council  (constructed  a  section  of  seats)  in  the  place 
of  providing  games.' 

From  an  inscription  in  the  Stabian  Baths,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made  (p.  195),  it  is  clear  that  some  freedom  of 
choice  was  permitted  to  the  city  officials  regarding  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  sum  which  they  were  required  to  contribute  for  pub- 
lic purposes  in  recognition  of  the  honor  conferred  upon  them 
by  their  election.  The  Amphitheatre  was  not  provided  with 
seats  at  the  beginning,  and  one  wedge-shaped  section  {cnnens) 
after  another  was  added  until  the  divisions  were  complete ; 
meanwhile  the  spectators  made  themselves  as  comfortable  as 
they  could  on  the  sloping  ground.  As  the  organization  of  the 
Pagus  Augustus  Felix  did  not  take  place  till  7  b.c,  the  con- 
struction of  the  seats  could  not  at  that  time  have  been  com- 
pleted ;  but  they  were  all  finished  before  the  overwhelming  of 
the  city. 

The  north  entrance  to  the  arena  was  adorned  with  two  por- 
trait statues  of  Gains  Cuspius  Pansa,  father  and  son,  placed  in 
niches  in  the  walls  facing  each  other.  The  statues  have  dis- 
appeared, but  the  inscriptions  underneath  are  still  in  place. 
What  services  the  Pansas  had  rendered  in  connection  with  the 
Amphitheatre  to  merit  this  distinction,  we  do  not  know ;  but 
the  father,  as  the  inscription  indicates,  was  '  prefect  in  accord- 
ance with  the  law  of  Petronius  '  (p.  14);  that  is,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  council  to  exercise  the  functions  of  the  two 
duumvirs  when  no  valid  election  occurred.  Bulwer  Lytton,  by 
a  natural  error,  makes  Pansa  a  commissioner  to  secure  the  exe- 
cution of  an  altogether  different  Lex  Petronia,  which  forbade 
the  giving  of  slaves  to  wild  beasts  unless  judicial  sentence  had 
been  previously  passed  upon  them. 

The  attraction  of  the  gladiatorial  exhibitions,  together  with 
the  ample  seating  capacity  of  the  building,  stimulated  attend- 
ance from  neighboring  cities,  and  on  one  occasion  unfortunate 
results  followed.  In  the  year  59  a.d.  a  Roman  senator,  Livi- 
neius  Regulus,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the    Senate,  and 


220  POMPEII 

had  apparently  taken  up  his  residence  at  Pompeii,  gave  an 
exhibition  that  attracted  a  great  concourse.  Among  those  who 
came  to  witness  the  combats  were  many  inhabitants  of  Nuceria. 
The  people  of  the  two  towns  may  not  have  been  on  the  best  of 
terms  previously ;  whatever  the  cause,  the  Pompeians  and  Nuce- 
rians  commenced  with  mutual  bantering  and  recriminations,  then 
resorted  to  stone-throwing,  and  finally  engaged  in  a  free  fight 
with  weapons. 

The  Nucerians,  as  can  easily  be  understood,  fared  the  worse, 
having  many  killed  and  wounded.  They  carried  the  matter  to 
Rome,  lodging  a  complaint  with  Nero ;  the  emperor  referred 
the  case  to  the  Senate,  which  decreed  that  Regulus  and  the 
leaders  of  the  disturbance  should  be  sent  into  exile,  that  the 
Pompeians  should  not  be  permitted  to  hold  any  gladiatorial 
exhibitions  for  the  space  of  ten  years,  and  that  the  illegal  socie- 
ties at  Pompeii  —  in  regard  to  which,  unfortunately,  we  have  no 
further  information  —  should  be  dissolved.  From  the  receipts  of 
Caecilius  Jucundus  we  learn,  further,  that  the  duumvirs  of  the 
year  59  were  removed  from  office,  and  that  with  the  new  duum- 
virs, elected  in  their  places,  a  magistrate  with  extraordinary 
powers,  pracfcctus  inri  dicnndo,  was  associated  —  measures  that 
indicate  how  serious  the  disturbance  of  public  order  must  have 
been. 

Reminiscences  of  this  bloody  fray  are  found  in  several  in- 
scriptions scratched  on  walls  ;  and  a  lively  idea  of  it  is  given  by 
a  wall  painting  found  in  1869  in  a  house  near  the  theatres,  now 
in  the  Naples  Museum  (Fig.  loi).  The  picture  is  of  special  in- 
terest as  throwing  light  on  the  surroundings  of  the  Amphithe- 
atre and  some  of  its  arrangements.  The  open  space  with  the 
trees  in  the  foreground,  among  which  are  various  booths,  remind 
one  of  a  park ;  at  the  right  is  a  single  house.  It  is  clear  from 
the  painting  that  the  women's  boxes,  in  the  gallery,  were  arched 
in  front;  and  we  see  how  the  great  awning,  velum,  was  stretched 
over  the  south  end  to  protect  the  audience  from  the  sun.  It 
was  carried  by  the  two  towers  of  the  city  wall  (one  of  them  is 
indicated  on  the  plan,  13)  and  by  masts  that  stood  in  the  pas- 
sage behind  the  women's  boxes,  where  several  of  the  perforated 
stones  in  which  they  were  set  may  still  be  seen. 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE 


221 


That  the  sports  of  the  Amphitheatre  had  at  all  times  the 
keenest  interest  for  the  Pompeians  is  evident,  not  only  from 
the  number  of  notices  having  to  do  with  the  games,  which  we 
see  painted  in  red  on  walls  along  the  streets  or  on  tombs  by 
the  roadside,  but  also  from  the  countless  graffiti  in  both  houses 
and  public  places  having  reference  to  combats  and  favorite 
gladiators.     The  limits  of  space  do  not  permit  us  to  describe 


Fig.  101. — Conflict  Ijetween  the  Pompeians  and  the  Nucerians.     Wall  painting. 

the  gladiatorial  exhibitions  as  they  took  place  at  Pompeii  and 
other  Roman  cities ;  but  the  inscriptions  bring  so  near  to  us  the 
scenes  and  excitement  of  those  days  that  it  seems  worth  while 
to  quote  and  interpret  a  few  typical  examples. 

On  a  tomb  near  the  Nuceria  Gate,  excavated  in  1886,  is  the 

*  following  notice,  painted  in  red  letters  :   Glad\_iatflniin']  pai\ia\ 

XX  Q.  Monni  Riifi  pug\_nabunt]   Nola  K\alcndis'\   Mais,    VI. 

V.  Nonas  Maias,  ct  vcnatio  crit,  — '  Twenty  pairs  of  gladiators, 

furnished  by  Ouintus  Monnius  Rufus,  will  fight  at  Nola  May  i, 


222  POMPEII 

2,  and  3,  and  there  will  be  a  hunt.'  The  forms  of  the  letters 
and  the  numerous  ligatures  point  to  a  comparatively  early 
period,  perhaps  antedating  the  reign  of  Augustus.  The  '  hunt,' 
venatio,  was  an  exhibition  of  wild  beasts,  which  sometimes 
were  pitted  against  one  another,  sometimes  fought  with  men. 
Another  tomb  close  by  bears  a  notice  of  a  gladiatorial  combat 
to  take  place  at  Nuceria. 

A  still  larger  number  of  gladiators  is  announced  in  this  notice  : 
Cn.  Allci  Nigidi  Mai  quinq\iicimalis'\  gl\adiatorii7n'\  par\ia'\ 
XXX  et  eor\jim'\  s}tpp\ositicii'\  piigii\abuiit\  Pompeis  VIII 
VII  VI  K\alendas\  Dec\_embrcs'\.  ]^cn\^atio\  erit.  Maio  quiii- 
\_qiieiinali\  fcliciter.  Paris  va\^le^,  — '  Thirty  pairs  of  gladiators 
furnished  by  Cn.  Alleius  Nigidius  Maius,  quinquennial  duumvir, 
together  with  their  substitutes,  will  fight  at  Pompeii  November 
24,  25,  26.  There  will  be  a  hunt.  Hurrah  for  Maius  the  quin- 
quennial !  Bravo,  Paris  !  '  The  substitutes  were  to  take  the 
place  of  the  killed  or  wounded,  that  the  sport  might  not  suffer 
interruption.  Nigidius  Maius  appears  to  have  been  a  rich 
Pompeian  of  the  time  of  Claudius.  In  another  painted  in- 
scription, he  advertises  a  considerable  property  for  rent  (p. 
489).  His  daughter,  as  we  know  from  an  inscription  belonging 
to  a  statue  erected  in  her  honor,  was  a  priestess  of  Venus  and 
Ceres.     Paris  was  probably  a  popular  gladiator. 

Other  officials  besides  duumvirs  provided  exhibitions.  Thus 
an  aedile  :  A.  Snetti  Certi  acdilis  familia  gladiatoria pug)iab^it^^ 
Pompeis  pr\idie'\  K\_alcndas'\  lunias ;  venatio  et  vela  cnint,  — 
'  The  gladiatorial  troop  of  the  aedile  Aulus  Suettius  Certus  will 
fight  at  Pompeii  May  31;  there  will  be  a  hunt,  and  awnings 
will  be  provided.' 

The  following  notice  can  be  dated,  approximately  :  D.  Iitcreti 
Satri  Valeiitis  flaminis  Neronis  Caesar  is  Aiig\_usti'\  fili  perpetui 
gladiatoriim  paria  XX,  et  D.  Lncreti  Valentis  fJi g/ad\_iatonii>i'] 
paria  X  p7ig\iiab7mt'\  Pompeis  J 7  J^  IJ^  III  pr\idic'\  Idiis 
Apr\iles\  Vejiatio  legitima  et  vela  erunt.  Scr\ipsit'\  Aemi- 
litis  Celer  si7tg[^iiliis~\  ad  luna\in'\,  —  '  Twenty  pairs  of  gladiators 
furnished  by  Decimus  Lucretius  Satrius  Valens,  permanent 
priest  of  Nero,  son  of  the  emperor,  and  ten  pairs  of  gladiators 
furnished  bv   Decimus   Lucretius  Valens  his  son,  will  fight  at 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE  223 

Pompeii  April  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  12.  There  will  be  a  big  hunt, 
and  awnings.  Aemilius  Celer  wrote  this,  all  alone  by  the  light 
of  the  moon.'  The  reference  to  Nero  as  the  son  of  the  em- 
peror, shows  that  the  inscription  was  written  after  he  was 
adopted  by  Claudius,  in  50  a.d.,  and  before  Claudius's  death, 
in  54.  Celer  was  an  enterprising  painter  of  notices,  whose 
name  appears  elsewhere  in  a  similar  connection. 

Besides  the  general  announcement  of  a  gladiatorial  exhibi- 
tion, a  detailed  programme,  libelliis,  was  prepared  in  advance, 
of  which  copies  were  sold.  No  such  copy  has  come  down  to 
us,  but  the  character  of  the  contents  of  a  programme  may  be 
inferred  from  the  order  of  events  which  a  Pompeian  with  waste 
time  on  his  hands  scratched  on  a  wall ;  the  memorandum  covers 
two  exhibitions,  which  came  near  together  in  the  early  part  of 
May,  the  result  of  each  combat  being  carefully  noted.  Unfor- 
tunately the  letters  have  now  become  almost  illegible;  but  we 
give  the  superscription  and  three  of  the  nine  pairs  of  com- 
batants mentioned  in  the  second  programme,  which  is  the 
better  preserved  of  the  two,  adding  in  a  separate  column  the 
full  forms  of  the  abbreviated  words ;  the  figures  indicate 
the  number  of  combats  in  w^hich  the  different  gladiators  had 
taken  part :  — 

MUNUS  .  N  .   .   .   .         IV  •  III  Munus  N  .   .   .   .   IV.  III. 

PRID  •  IDUS  •  IDI[BUS]  •  MAI[S]     pridie  Idus,  Idibus  Mais 

T         M  T  h  r  e  x,  AI  y  r  m  i  1 1  o 

V.      PuGNAX  •  Ner  •  III  vicit.  Pugnax.  Neronianus.  Ill 

p.     MuRRANUS  •  Ner  •  III  periit.  Murranus.  Neronianus,  III 

O         T  H  o  p  1  o  m  a  c  h  u  s,  T  h  r  e  x 

V.     Cycnus  •  luL  •  Villi  vicit.  Cycnus,  lulianus,  Villi 

;//.    Atticus  •  luL  •  XIV  missus  est.     Atticus,  lulianus,  XIV 

ESS  Essedarii 

w.    P  •  OsTORius  •  LI  f/iissiis  est.     Publius  Ostorius,  LI. 

7'.     ScYLAX  •  luL  •  XXVI  I'icit.  Scylax.  lulianus,  XXVI 

The  name  of  the  official  who  gave  the  exhibition  {inuiuis)  is 
obliterated.     The  contests  extended  over  four  days,  May  12-15. 

In  the  first  pair  of  gladiators  Pugnax,  equipped  with  Thracian 
weapons  —  a  small,  round  shield  and   short,  curved  sword   or 


224  pompp:ii 

dagger  —  was  matched  with  the  Myrmillo  Murranus,  who  bore 
arms  of  the  Gallic  fashion,  with  the  image  of  a  fish  on  his  hel- 
met. Both  were  Neroniani ;  that  is,  from  the  training  school 
for  gladiators  founded  by  Nero,  apparently  at  Capua.  Pugnax 
and  Murranus  had  both  been  through  three  contests  previously. 
The  name  of  a  gladiator  entering  a  combat  for  the  first  time 
was  not  followed  by  a  number,  but  by  the  letter  T,  standing  for 
tiro,  'novice.'  At  the  left  we  see  the  record  added  to  the  pro- 
gramme by  the  writer  in  order  to  give  the  result  of  the  combat. 
Pugnax  was  the  victor,  Murranus  was  killed. 

In  the  second  pair  Cycnus,  in  heavy  armor,  was  pitted  against 
Atticus,  who  had  the  Thracian  arms.  Both  were  from  the 
training  school  founded  by  Julius  Caesar,  probably  at  Capua, 
and  hence  are  called  Inliani.  Cycnus  won,  but  the  audience 
had  compassion  on  Atticus,  and  his  life  was  spared.  The  same 
term  was  applied  to  a  defeated  gladiator  permitted  to  leave  the 
arena  as  to  a  soldier  having  an  honorable  discharge  —  uiissus, 
'  let  go.' 

The  third  pair  fought  in  chariots,  being  dressed  in  British 
costume.  Scylax  was  from  the  Julian  school.  Such  establish- 
ments let  out  gladiators  to  those  who  gave  exhibitions,  and 
obtained  in  this  way  a  considerable  income.  But  Publius  Osto- 
rius,  as  his  name  implies,  was  a  freeman  ;  presumably  he  was  a 
gladiator,  who,  having  served  a  full  term,  had  secured  his  free- 
dom, and  was  now  fighting  on  his  own  account.  Though  beaten, 
he  was  permitted  to  live,  perhaps  on  account  of  his  creditable 
record ;  he  had  engaged  in  fifty-one  combats. 

The  combatants  from  the  schools  of  Caesar  and  Nero  were 
especially  popular,  and  were  generally  victorious  ;  but  gladiators 
belonging  to  other  proprietors  are  mentioned,  as  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  a  house  on  Nola  Street,  which  will  be  mentioned  again 
presently.  Here  we  find  gladiators  who  were  evidently  freemen 
named  with  others  who  were  slaves  of  different  masters.  In 
only  one  of  these  inscriptions,  however,  do  we  find  the  name  of 
an  owner  that  is  known  to  us :  Essed\cxrius\  Aiiriolus  Sise7i\_nac\ 
The  chariot  fighter  Auriolus  belonged  to  a  Sisenna.  seemingly 
either  the  Sisenna  Statilius  Taurus,  who  was  consul  in  i6  a.d., 
or  his  son  of  the  same  name.     As  we  hav^e  seen,  it  was  a  Sta- 


THE   AMPHITHEATRE  225 

tilius  Taurus  who  built  the  first  permanent  amphitheatre  in  Rome, 
in  29  B.C.  The  control  of  this  building  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  family.  In  the  columbarium  in  which  the  ashes  of 
their  slaves  and  freedmen  were  placed,  we  find  inscriptions  of  a 
'guard  of  the  amphitheatre,'  and  of  a  'doorkeeper' — c/istos  de 
aniphithcatro,  ostiarins  ab  amphit/icatro.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  family  —  the  first  in  Rome  after  the  imperial  house  — 
possessed  a  training  school,  and  derived  an  income  from  fur- 
nishing gladiators  to  those  who  gave  exhibitions. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  we  must  suppose  that  the  'troop' 
{familia  gladiatoria)  of  Suettius  Certus,  for  example,  was  sim- 
ply a  band  of  gladiators  brought  together  for  a  particular 
engagement,  not  a  permanent  organization.  The  giver  of  an 
exhibition  would  make  a  contract  for  the  gladiators  that  he 
might  need.  At  the  close  of  the  combats  the  dead  would  be 
counted,  the  surviving  freemen  paid  off  and  dismissed,  and  the 
surviving  slaves  returned  to  their  masters,  '  the  troop '  thus 
going  out  of  existence. 

Occasionally  the  individual  who  provided  the  combats  would 
erect  a  monument  to  the  fallen,  by  w'ay  of  perpetuating  the 
memory  of  his  munificence.  A  familiar  example  is  the  memo- 
rial set  up  by  Gains  Salvius  Capito  at  Venosa,  of  which  the 
inscription  is  extant.  The  names  are  given  of  the  gladiators 
who  were  killed,  together  with  the  number  of  their  previous 
combats  and  victories.  They  were  slaves  of  different  masters, 
only  one  of  them,  Optatus,  being  owned  by  Capito  himself. 
Optatus  was  a  tiro,  who  fell  thus  in  his  first  contest.  Possibly 
his  master  had  obliged  him,  on  account  of  some  misdemeanor, 
to  enter  the  arena  with  little  previous  training. 

Besides  the  classes  of  inscriptions  of  which  examples  have 
been  presented,  all  sorts  of  scratches  upon  the  plastered  walls 
bear  witness  to  the  general  enthusiasm  for  gladiatorial  sports. 
Sometimes  there  is  simply  the  name  of  a  gladiator,  with  his 
school  and  the  number  of  combats,  as  Anctits,  Itil\_ian?is'], 
XXXXX ;  sometimes  we  find  a  rough  outline  of  a  figure  with  a 
boastful  legend,  as  Hcnna'isciis  inv ictus  hac,  '  Here's  the  uncon- 
quered  Hermai'scus.' 

There  are  also  memoranda  in  regard  to  particular  combats, 


226  POMPEII 

illustrated  by  rude  sketches.  Thus  on  a  wall  in  the  house  of 
the  Centenary  we  find  a  drawing  of  a  gladiator  in  flight,  pur- 
sued by  another,  with  the  note :  Officiosiis  fugit  VIII  Idus 
Nov\embres\  Druso  Caesm'e  M.  Innio  Silaiio  cos.,  —  '  Officiosus 
fled  on  November  6,  in  the  year  15  a.d.'  A  similar  sketch  has 
been  found  in  another  house,  with  these  words  written  beside 
the  fleeing  gladiator,  Q.  P\_e~\tronins  6'[r]/^z[t'];/j-  XXXIII, 
7n\_tssiis'\  ;  beside  the  pursuer,  Sevenes  Ub\_crtiis'\,  XXXXXV, 
v\icit^.  Severus  was  thus  a  gladiator  who  had  been  a  slave, 
and  had  gained  his  freedom :  he  had  fought  fifty-five  combats. 
Petronius  Octavus  may  have  been  a  freeman,  w^ho  had  fought 
on  his  own  account  from  the  beginning.  In  taverns  a  painting 
of  a  gladiator  with  an  inscription  like  the  record  of  a  pro- 
gramme was  a  favorite  subject  of  decoration. 

Athletes  in  all  ages  have  won  the  admiration  of  the  gentler 
sex ;  and  it  would  be  surprising  if  among  so  many  gladiatorial 
graffiti  there  were  not  some  containing  references  to  female 
admirers.  In  the  peristyle  of  a  house  on  Nola  Street  (V.  v.  3) 
the  names  of  about  thirty  gladiators  are  found  ;  the  kinds  of 
weapons  and  the  owners  are  designated,  and  the  number  of 
previous  combats  given,  as  in  the  programmes,  while  records 
of  the  results  of  the  combats  are  entirely  lacking.  Terms  of 
endearment  are  lavished  upon  two,  Celadus,  Threx,  and  Cres- 
cens,  net  fighter ;  Celadus  is  suspiriuni  puellanivi,  '  maidens' 
sigh,'  and  pjiellanun  dccus,  '  glory  of  girls  ' ;  while  Crescens  is 
puparuni  doiniiiiis,  'lord  o'  lassies,'  and  puparuin  mediciis,  'the 
darlings'  doctor.' 

Another  graffito  informs  us  that  at  one  time  —  before  the  year 
63  —  a  gladiator  lived  in  this  house:  Sanins  I  0  I  vi\jirmillo\, 
idem  eq\jnes\,  hie  Jiab\itat\,  —  '  Samus,  who  has  fought  once, 
and  once  conquered  {0  is  for  corona,  'crown'),  Myrmillo,  and 
at  the  same  time  fighter  on  horseback,  lives  here.'  Other 
gladiators,  no  doubt,  shared  the  dwelling  with  him  ;  and  the 
amatory  graffiti  may  have  been  written  by  one  and  another 
miles  gloriosus,  referring  to  conquests  outside  the  arena,  or  by 
companions  in  bitter  scorn. 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

STREETS,    WATER   SYSTEM,   AND    PVAVS/DE  SHR/iVES 

The  streets  of  Pompeii  vary  greatly  in  width.     The  widest 
is  Mercury  Street,  the  continuation  of  which  near  the  Forum 


Fig.  I02.  ^  View  ol  Abbondanza  Street,  looking  east. 

At  the  left,  fountain  of  Concordia  Augusta,  and  side  entrance  of  the  Eumachia  building. 

In  the  pavement,  three  stepping  stones. 

has  a  breadth  of  nearly  32  feet.  Next  come  Abbondanza 
and  Nola  streets,  the  greatest  width  of  which  is  about  28 
feet ;  the  other  streets  and  thoroughfares  vary  from  10  to  20 
feet.  With  unimportant  exceptions,  broad  and  narrow  streets 
alike  are  paved  with  polygonal  blocks  of  basalt,  which  in  laying 
were  fitted  to  one  another  with  great  care  ;  on  both  sides  are 

227 


2  28  POiMPEII 

raised  sidewalks,  with  basalt  or  tufa  curbing.  The  sidewalks 
in  some  places  are  paved  with  small  stones,  elsewhere  are  laid 
with  concrete,  or  left  with  a  surface  of  beaten  earth.  As  there 
is  no  uniformity,  the  sidewalk  varying  in  front  of  adjoining 
houses,  it  is  clear  that  the  choice  of  materials  was  left  to  indi- 
vidual owners  of  abutting  property.  The  limits  of  ownership 
are  often  designated  by  boundary  stones,  laid  in  the  surface  of 
the  walk. 

Broad  ruts,  worn  by  wheels,  are  seen  in  the  pavement,  shal- 
lower in  places  where  the  basalt  flags,  cut  from  the  lowest 
stratum  of  the  stream  of  lava,  are  particularly  hard ;  deeper 
wherever  there  are  blocks  quarried  nearer  the  surface.  Only 
the  principal  streets  were  wide  enough  to  allow  wagons  to  meet 
and  pass ;  elsewhere  drivers  must  have  waited  at  a  corner  for  a 
coming  team  to  go  by.  It  seems  likely  that  driving  on  the 
streets  of  the  city  was  forbidden,  wheeled  vehicles  being  used 
only  for  traffic  ;  people  who  wished  to  ride  availed  themselves 
of  litters. 

At  various  places  along  the  thoroughfares,  but  particularly  at 
the  corners,  large  oblong  stepping  stones  with  rounded  corners 
were  set  in  the  pavement  at  convenient  distances  for  those  wish- 
ing to  cross,  the  surface  being  on  a  level  with  the  sidewalk.  The 
number  varied  according  to  the  width  of  the  pavement ;  in  the 
broadest  streets  as  many  as  five  were  used.  They  were  ar- 
ranged always  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  places  for  the  wagon 
wheels.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  Pompeian  drivers 
guided  their  teams  past  them  ;  draft  animals  were  attached  to 
the  wagon  by  means  of  a  yoke  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  pole, 
and,  as  there  were  no  tugs  or  whippletrees,  they  had  a  greater 
freedom  of  movement  than  is  allowed  to  modern  teams. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  so  complete  a  system  of  paving 
existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  city.  Some  light  is  thrown 
on  the  period  of  its  laying  by  two  inscriptions,  —  one,  ex  •  k  • 
QUI,  cut  in  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk  west  of  Insula  IX.  iv. ;  the 
other,  K  •  Q,  in  the  pavement  between  the  second  and  fourth 
Insulae  of  Region  VII.  Both  are  evidently  dates,  and  in  full 
would  read  ex  Kahndis  Ouiuctilibus,  '  from  the  first  day  of 
July,'   and   Kaleudis   Qitiuctilibus,   'July    i.'      Apparently  they 


THE  STREETS  229 

relate  to  the  laying  of  the  pavement ;  this  was  in  place,  even  in 
the  unimportant  side  street  of  Region  VII,  when  the  inscrip- 
tions were  cut,  and  so  must  go  back  to  the  time  before  the 
name  of  the  month  Quiiictilis  was  changed  to  lulins,  our  July. 
Pompeii  was  paved,  therefore,  before  44  b.c. 

The  stepping  stones  were  particularly  useful  when  there  was 
a  heavy  rain ;  for  the  water  then  flowed  in  torrents  down  the 
streets,  as  it  does  to-day  in  Catania,  where  the  inhabitants  have 
light  bridges  which  they  throw  over  the  crossings  after  a 
storm.  There  were  covered  conduits  to  carry  off  the  surface 
drainage  of  the  Forum,  one  of  which  runs  under  the  Strada 
delle  Scuole  to  the  south,  the  other  under  the  Via  Marina  to 
the  west.  Elsewhere  the  water  rushed  down  the  streets  till  it 
came  near  the  city  walls,  where  it  was  collected  and  carried 
off  by  large  storm  sewers.  These  are  still  in  successful  opera- 
tion, as  are  also  the  conduits  at  the  Forum.  One  is  at  the  west 
end  of  the  Vico  dei  Soprastanti,  another  at  the  west  end  of 
Nola  Street ;  and  a  third  leads  from  Abbondanza  Street,  where 
it  is  crossed  by  Stabian  Street,  toward  the  south. 

There  were  other  sewers  in  the  city,  but  they  were  of  small 
dimensions  and  have  not  been  fully  investigated.  They  seem 
generally  to  have  been  under  sidewalks.  They  were  not  designed 
to  receive  surface  water,  but  the  drainage  of  houses.  They  can- 
not have  served  this  purpose  fully,  however,  for  most  of  the 
closets  were  connected,  not  with  the  sewers,  but  with  cesspools. 

After  the  lapse  of  more  than  eighteen  centuries,  the  visitor 
at  Pompeii  will  distinguish  at  a  glance  the  business  streets  from 
those  less  frequented.  The  sides  of  the  former  are  lined  with 
shops  ;  along  the  latter  are  blank  walls,  broken  only  by  house 
doors,  with  now  and  then  a  small  wandow  high  above  the  pave- 
ment. The  greatest  volume  of  business  was  transacted  on  the 
two  main  thoroughfares,  Stabian  and  Nola  streets ;  next  in 
importance  were  Abbondanza  Street,  leading  from  the  Forum 
toward  the  Sarno  Gate,  and  the  continuation  of  Augustales 
Street  from  the  north  end  of  the  Forum  toward  the  east.  First 
in  the  list  of  quiet  thoroughfares  is  the  broad  Mercury  Street, 
along  wiiich  were  many  homes  of  wealth  ;  the  north  end  of  it  is 
closed  by  the  city  wall. 


230  POMPEII 

There  were  many  fountains  along  the  streets  of  Pompeii, 
most  of  them  at  the  corners.  They  were  fed  by  pipes  connect- 
ing with  the  water  system  of  the  city.  The  construction  is 
simple.  A  deep  basin  was  made  by  placing  on  their  edges  four 
large  slabs  of  basalt,  held  together  at  the  corners  by  iron  clamps. 
Above  one  of  the  longer  sides,  usually  near  the  middle,  is  a 
short,  thick  standard,  of  the  same  stone,  pierced  for  the  lead 
feed  pipe,  which  threw  a  jet  of  water  forward  into  the  basin 
below ;  on  the  opposite  side  is  a  depression  through  which  the 
superfluous  water  ran  off  into  the  street.  Most  of  these  stand- 
ards are  ornamented  with  reliefs,  roughly  carved  but  effective, 
—  an  eagle  with  a  hare  in  its  beak,  a  calf's  head,  a  bust  of 
Mercury,  a  head  of  Medusa,  a  drunken  Silenus  (Fig.  103),  or 
some  other  suitable  design,  arranged  so  that  the  water  would 
spurt  from  the  mouth  of  the  figure  or  from  an  amphora. 

Occasionally  we  find  a  fountain  of  finer  material.  That  of 
Concordia  Augusta,  of  limestone,  has  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  117).  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  Porta  Marina  there  is  a 
fountain  of  white  marble  with  a  relief  showing  a  cock  that  has 
tipped  over  a  jar,  from  the  mouth  of  which  the  water  flowed. 
Both  these  more  costly  fountains  were  probably  the  gift  of 
private  individuals,  one  presented  to  the  city  by  Eumachia,  the 
other  by  the  owner  of  the  nearest  house,  at  VII.  xv.  1-2.  All 
the  fountains  bear  witness  to  long  use  by  the  depressions  worn 
in  the  stone  by  the  hands  of  those  leaning  forward  to  drink. 

Water  towers  stand  at  the  sides  of  the  streets,  small  pillars 
of  masonry  preserved  ordinarily  to  the  height  of  20  feet. 
Usually  on  one  side  there  is  a  deep  perpendicular  groove 
(shown  in  Fig.  103)  in  which  ran  the  pipe  that  carried  the  water 
to  the  top  of  the  tower,  where  it  was  received  by  a  small  open 
reservoir,  presumably  of  metal,  and  distributed  through  numer- 
ous small  pipes  leading  "to  the  fountains  and  to  private  houses. 
The  sides  of  the  towers  are  often  covered  with  incrustations  of 
lime  deposited  from  the  water,  in  which  the  impressions  of  the 
lead  pipes  are  still  to  be  seen  ;  in  the  case  of  one  tower,  at  the 
northeast  corner  of  Insula  VI.  xiii,  a  number  of  the  pipes  have 
been  preserved.  A  reservoir  was  placed  also  on  the  top  of  the 
commemorative  arch  at  the  lower  end  of  Mercury   Street,  on 


WATER  SYSTl^M 


231 


which  stood  the  bronze  statue  of  Nero  or  Caligula  (p.  48) ;  the 
traces  of  the  pipes  leading  from  it  are  clearly  seen  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  arch.  Similar  water  towers  are  in  use  now  in  Con- 
stantinople and  Palermo,  having  been  introduced  into  the  latter 
city,  it  would  seem,  by  the  Saracens,  who  very  likely  took  their 
water  system  from  that  of  the  Turkish  capital. 

In  consequence  of  these  arrangements,  Pompeii  was  well 
supplied  with  water.  There  were  flowing  jets  in  all  houses 
except  the  poorest,  and  in  some  the  amount  used  must  have 
been  large.     In  the  house  of  the  Vettii  there  were  no  less  than 


103 


•Fountain,  water  tower,  and  street  shrine,  corner  of  Stabian  and 
Nola  streets. 


sixteen  jets,  in  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  seven ;  and  an 
equally  generous  distribution  is  found  in  many  other  of  the 
more  extensive  private  establishments.  Large  quantities  of 
water  were  used  also  in  the  public  baths.  The  water  pipes 
were  made  of  sheet  lead  folded  together,  a  transverse  section 
showing  the  shape  of  a  pear.  They  were  of  all  sizes,  according 
to  the  pressure  ;  the  flow  of  water  was  regulated  by  means  of 
stopcocks,  much  like  those  in  use  to-day. 

Across  the  street  from  the  Baths  near  the  Forum,  on  the 
west,  is  a  deep  reservoir,  of  which  we  give  the  plan  (Fig.  104). 
It  is  built  partly  below  the  level  of  the  sidewalk,  and  measures 
about  50  feet  in  length  and   13  in  width,  being  covered  by  a 


232  POMPEII 

vault.  In  the  south  end  is  a  window  (c),  reached  from  one  of 
the  stairways  ;  when  the  reservoir  was  filled  to  the  bottom  of  the 
window,  it  contained  not  far  from  ninety-five  thousand  gallons. 
There  were  two  outlets.  One  was  at  the  level  of  the  floor, 
closed  by  means  of  a  bronze  slide ;  the  grooves  in  which  the 
slide  worked  are  preserved.  This  must  have  been  used  only  when 
the  reservoir  was  cleaned.  The  other  outlet  was  placed  about 
three  feet  above  the  floor,  so  that  the  water  could  be  drawn 
off  without  disturbing  the  bottom.  On  the  flat  roof  were  rooms 
the  arrangement  of  which  cannot  be  determined. 

Similar  reservoirs  are  found  in  Constantinople,  designed  to 
furnish  a  supply  of  water  in  case  of  siege.  Such  may  have 
been  the  purpose  of  our  structure,  which  seems  to  have  been 

built  in  the  early  years  of 
the  Roman  colony.  The  resi- 
dents, remembering  the  hard- 

Vii  // ,  ^__l_y" B  ■  H       ships  of  the  siege  of  Sulla, 

^^^■f*^^"^^^"^       may  have  thought  it  neces- 


] 


i I L. 


sary  to  make  provision  against 

Fig.  104.  —  Plan  of  reservoir,  west  of  the  •      ^^  •     •        ^        r 

Baths  near  the  Forum.  ^  Smillar  Strait  m  the  futurC. 

a.  i,  c.  Windows.        d,  e.   Stairs.  Thc  source  from  which  the 

city  received  its  water  supply 
has  not  been  discovered.  Evidently  it  did  not  draw  upon  the 
sources  of  the  Sarno ;  the  water  channel  constructed  by  Fon- 
tana  (p.  25)  runs  through  the  city  at  a  height  of  less  than  sixty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  while  the  ancient  aqueduct  that 
supplied  Pompeii  had  so  great  a  head  that  in  the  highest  parts 
of  the  city,  more  than  130  feet  above  the  sea,  it  forced  the 
water  to  the  top  of  the  water  towers,  at  least  twenty  feet  more. 
Copious  springs  can  never  have  existed  on  the  sides  of  Vesu- 
vius ;  water  must  have  been  brought  to  the  city  from  the  more 
distant  mountains  bounding  the  Campanian  plain  on  the  east. 

We  can  hardly  believe  that  the  construction  of  a  water  chan- 
nel for  so  great  a  distance  lay  within  the  resources  of  so  small 
a  town.  We  find,  however,  the  remains  of  a  great  aqueduct 
which,  starting  near  AveUino,  a  dozen  miles  east  of  Nola, 
skirted  the  base  of  Vesuvius  on  the  north  and  extended  west- 
ward, furnishing  water  not  only  to  Naples  but  also  to  Puteoli, 


STREET   SHRINES  '  233 

Baiae,  and  Misenum.  This  ancient  structure  drew  from  the 
same  springs,  and  followed  substantially  the  same  route,  as  the 
new  aqueduct  which  since  1885  has  been  bringing  water  to 
Naples.  No  inscription  in  regard  to  it  has  been  found,  and 
there  is  no  reference  to  it  in  ancient  books.  The  remains  — 
of  which  the  longest  section,  known  as  Ponti  Rossi,  '  Red 
Bridges,'  may  be  seen  near  Naples  —  seem  to  indicate  two 
styles  of  construction,  extensive  repairs  having  been  made  after 
the  aqueduct  had  been  partly  destroyed ;  but  up  to  the  present 
time  it  has  not  been  possible  to  determine  the  period  to  which 
they  belong. 

The  water  system  of  Pompeii  goes  back  to  the  time  before 
the  founding  of  the  Roman  colony.  This  is  evident,  not  only 
from  the  arrangements  of  the  older  baths,  which  comtemplated 
a  freer  use  of  water  than  could  well  have  been  provided 
by  cisterns,  but  also  from  the  existence  of  three  marble  sup- 
ports for  fountain  basins,  which,  as  shown  by  their  style  of 
workmanship,  the  use  of  Oscan  letters  as  mason's  marks,  and 
their  location  in  pre-Roman  buildings  —  the  temple  of  Apollo, 
the  Forum  Triangulare,  and  the  house  of  the  Faun  —  belonged 
to  the  earlier  period.  If  we  may  ascribe  the  building  of  the 
great  aqueduct  to  the  time  of  peace  and  prosperity  in  Campania 
between  the  Second  Punic  War  and  the  Social  War,  and  sup- 
pose that  Pompeii,  joining  with  other  towns  in  its  construc- 
tion, was  supplied  by  a  branch  from  it,  we  have  a  simple  and 
highly  probable  solution  of  the  problem.  Nothing  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  masonry  requires  us  to  assign  the  aqueduct  to  a 
later  date. 

The  shrines  along  the  streets,  with  few  exceptions,  were 
dedicated  to  the  guardian  deities  presiding  over  thoroughfares, 
particularly  the  gods  of  street  crossings,  Lares  Compitales.  The 
worship  of  these  divinities  in  Rome  was  reorganized  by  Augustus 
and  placed  in  charge  of  the  precinct  wardens,  vicornm  magistri, 
who  were  to  see  that  the  worship  of  his  guardian  spirit.  Genius, 
was  associated  with  that  of  the  Lares  at  each  shrine.  The 
arrangements  at  the  Capital  were  naturally  followed  by  the 
colonies  and  other  cities  under  Roman  rule. 


234 


POMPEII 


At  Pompeii  the  shrines  of  the  street  gods  differ  greatly  in 
size  and  character.  Sometimes  there  is  a  small  altar  against 
the  side  of  a  building,  with  two  large  serpents,  personifications 
of  the  Genius  of  the  place,  painted  on  the  wall  near  it ;  one  of 
the  serpents,  with  a  conspicuous  crest,  represents  a  male,  the 
other,  a  female. 

Frequently  the  place  of  the  altar  is  taken  by  a  niche,  in 
which  the  passer-by  could  deposit  his  offering.  In  our  illus- 
tration (Fig.  105)  we  see  an  ancient  street  altar  which  was 
carefully  preserved  when  the  Central  Baths  were  built,  a  niche 
being  made  over  it  in  the  new  wall. 


Fig.  105.  —Ancient  altar  in  new  wall,  southeast  corner  of  the  Central  Baths. 


Sometimes  a  large  altar  is  found,  and  the  Lares,  with  their 
offerings,  are  painted  on  a  wall  above  it.  Such  a  shrine  may 
be  seen  at  the  northwest  corner  of  Stabian  and  Nola  streets, 
between  the  fountain  and  the  water  tower  (Fig.  103).  Back  of 
the  altar  is  a  wall  terminating  in  a  gable  (the  tiles  are  modern) 
on  which  was  a  painted  altar  with  four  worshippers  clad  in  togas, 
and  a  fluteplayer,  the  inseparable  accompaniment  of  a  Roman 
sacrificial  scene ;  at  the  sides  were  the  two  Lares,  represented  as 
youths,  in  loose  tunics  confined  by  a  girdle,  holding  in  one  hand, 
high  uplifted,  a  drinking  horn  {rJiyton),  from  which  a  jet  of  wine 
flows  into  a  small  pail  {situhx)  in  the  other  hand.  It  is  remark- 
able that  we  do  not  find  in  this  or  similar  paintings  at  Pompeii, 


STREET   SHRINES  235 

any  figure  representing  the  Genius  of  the  emperor,  while  in 
private  houses  the  Genius  of  the  proprietor  often  has  a  place 
with  the  Lares,  and  sometimes  the  Genius  of  the  emperor  also ; 
in  theory  at  least,  as  already  remarked  (p.  104),  the  emperor 
stood  to  all  men  in  the  relation  that  the  master  of  a  house  bore 
to  the  household. 

There  is  also  a  small  chapel  for  the  worship  of  the  street 
gods  on  the  west  side  of  Stabian  Street,  near 
Abbondanza  Street.  As  may  be  seen  from 
the  accompanying  plan  (Fig.  106),  at  the  left 
as  you  enter  is  a  bench  of  masonry  ( i ),  at  the 
rear  a  long  altar  (2).  In  the  wall  at  the  right 
is  a  niche  for  the  bronze  or  terra  cotta  figures 
of  the  Lares  and  the  Genius,  while  the  surface  0 — i — i — 3 — * — tm 
of  the  altar  is  divided  into  two  parts,  for  the     Fig- 106.— Plan  of  a 

,  .  r    ,1  !•••>•  A  chapel  of  the  Lares 

separate  worship  of  the  same  divinities.     A  compitaies 

similar  chapel  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of 
Mercury  Street  (VI.  viii.  14).  Here  also  we  find  a  bench  of 
masonry,  with  two  niches  above  it;  in  the  middle  was  a  block 
of  limestone  which  may  have  been  used  as  an  altar.  At  the 
rear  is  a  door  leading  into  a  small  back  room.  This  chapel  was 
formerly  thought  to  be  a  barber  shop. 

It  has  been  customary  to  assign  to  the  street  gods  all  of  the 
shrines  at  the  side  of  the  street.  Occasionally,  however,  other 
divinities  were  thus  honored  ;  and  the  only  street  altar  found 
with  an  inscription  is  consecrated  to  a  different  deity.  This 
altar  is  near  Nola  Street,  on  the  east  side  of  Insula  IX.  vii.  On 
the  wall  above  two  cornucopias  are  painted  the  w^ords  Sahitei 
sacrum,  'Sacred  to  Salus ' ;  the  goddess  of  health  was  w^or- 
shipped  here. 

Near  the  upper  end  of  the  Forum,  on  the  north  side  of  Insula 
VII.  vii,  is  another  altar,  above  which  is  a  stucco  relief  repre- 
senting a  sacrifice ;  at  the  sides  of  the  relief  are  pilasters,  and 
over  it  a  gable,  in  which  an  eagle  is  seen.  This  indicates  that 
the  shrine  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter. 

The  largest  of  the  street  altars,  of  tufa,  stands  free  in  a  vaulted 
niche  on  the  north  side  of  Insula  VIII.  ii,  but  no  traces  of  paint- 
ing are  to  be  seen  near  it  (Fig.  107). 


236 


POMPEII 


Various  divinities  are  painted  on  the  outside  of  houses.  The 
largest  picture  of  this  kind  is  at  the  corner  of  Abbondanza 
Street,  on  the  east  side  of  Insula  VIII.  iii.  It  contains  figures 
of  the  twelve  gods,  distinguished  by  their  attributes  —  Vesta, 
Diana,  Apollo,  Ceres,  Minerva,   Jupiter,  Juno,  Vulcan,  Venus 

Pompeiana,  Mars,  Nep- 
tune, and  Mercury.  Un- 
derneath are  the  two  ser- 
pents, facing  each  other, 
on  either  side  of  a  painted 
altar ;  near  the  altar  are 
other  figures  that  cannot 
be  plainly  distinguished, 
l^robably  of  men  offering 
sacrifice.  This  is  not  a 
shrine  —  there  is  no  place 
for  the  offerings.  The 
owner  of  the  property 
(house  of  the  Boar),  de- 
sired to  place  his  house- 
hold under  the  protection 
of  these  gods,  perhaps 
also  to  preserve  the  cor- 
ner from  defilement. 
We  often  find  roughly 
sketched  figures  of  sin- 
gle gods,  to  the  guardian 
care  of  whom  the  master  of  a  house  wished  to  commit  his  inter- 
ests—  most  frequently  Mercury,  the  patron  divinity  of  traders, 
and  Bacchus  ;  but  also  Jupiter,  Minerva,  and  Hercules. 

Sometimes  merely  a  pair  of  serpents  are  painted  on  a  wall,  in 
order  to  give  a  religious  association  to  the  place,  as  a  means  of 
protection.  In  one  case  (east  side  of  Insula  VII.  xi.  12)  an 
explicit  warning  was  painted  on  the  plaster  beside  them  :  Otiosis 
locus  hie  noil  est;  discedc,  monitor,  —  'No  place  for  loafers  here; 
move  along ! ' 


Fig.  107.  —  Large  street  altar. 


CHAPTER    XXXII 

THE  DEFENCES   OF  THE   CITY 

From  the  military  point  of  view,  Pompeii  at  the  time  of  the 
eruption  did  not  possess  a  system  of  defences.  For  many  years 
previously  the  city  wall  had  been  kept  in  repair  only  as  a  con- 
venience in  matters  of  civil  administration,  and  the  gates  had 
long  since  lost  all  appearance  of  preparedness  to  resist  attack. 
The  fortifications  are  not,  however,  without  interest.  They 
form  a  massive  and  conspicuous  portion  of  the  ruins,  and  as 
a  survival  from  an  earlier  period  they  have  recorded  many 
evidences  of  the  successive  changes  through  which  the  city 
passed. 

The  relation  of  the  wall  to  the  configuration  of  the  height  on 
which  Pompeii  stood  was  pointed  out  in  connection  with  our 
general  survey  of  the  city  (p.  31).  Along  the  southwest  side,  at 
the  time  of  the  eruption,  it  had  almost  completely  disappeared. 
Here,  where  the  slope  w^as  steepest  and  the  city  best  defended 
by  nature,  the  wall  had  been  removed,  and  its  place  occupied 
by  houses,  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  probably  in  the  second 
century  B.C. ;  enough  fragments  remain,  however,  to  enable  us 
to  determine  its  location  with  certainty.  Elsewhere  the  greater 
part  of  the  wall  is  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation.  The  towers 
did  not  belong  to  the  original  structure,  and  one  of  the  gates  in 
its  present  form  is  of  still  more  recent  origin. 

The  construction  of  the  wall  will  be  readily  understood  with 
the  help  of  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

First,  two  parallel  stone  walls  were  built,  about  1 5  feet  apart 
and  28  inches  thick ;  both  walls  were  strengthened  on  the  side 
toward  the  city  by  numerous  buttresses,  the  inner  wall  being 
further  supported  by  massive  abutments  projecting  into  the 
space  between  (Fig.  108).     This  space  was  filled  with  earth. 

237 


238 


POMPEII 


When  the  desired  height,  26  or  28  feet,  was  reached,  a  breast- 
work of  parapets  was  constructed  on  the  outer  wall ;  the  inner 
wall  was  carried  up  about  16  feet  above  the  broad  passageway 
on  the  top  (Fig.  no)  as  a  shield  against  the  weapons  of  the 
enemy,  preventing  the  missiles  from  going  over  into  the  town 
and  causing  them  to  fall  where  the  garrison  could  easily  pick 
them  up  to  hurl  back  again.  Rain  water  falling  on  the  top 
flowed  toward  the  outside,  and  was  carried  beyond  the  face  of 
the  masonry  by  stone  waterspouts. 

For  additional  strength  there  was  heaped  against  the  inner 
wall  an  embankment  of  earth,  which  still  remains  on  the  north 

side,  between  the  tenth 
and  twelfth  towers.  At 
the  right  of  the  Her- 
culaneum  Gate  the 
place  of  the  embank- 
ment and  of  the  inner 
wall  was  taken  by  a 
massive  stairway  (E 
in  Fig.  108)  leading  to 
the  top.  Originally, 
the  stairs  extended  east 
about  270  feet,  but  afterwards  they  were  demolished  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  distance,  and  houses  were  built  close  to 
the  wall.  There  is  a  smaller  stairway  of  the  same  kind  east  of 
the  Stabian  Gate  (Fig.  in). 

In  the  original  structure  both  outer  and  inner  walls  were 
built  of  hewn  blocks  of  tufa  and  limestone ;  but  we  find  portions 
of  the  outer  wall,  and  all  the  towers,  of  lava  rubble,  the  surface 
of  which  was  covered  with  stucco.  The  towers  were  already 
standing,  as  shown  by  .inscriptions,  at  the  time  of  the  Social 
War.  We  are  therefore  safe  in  beheving  that  in  the  period  of 
peace  following  the  Second  Punic  War  the  walls  were  not  kept 
in  repair,  some  parts  of  the  outer  wall  being  utilized  as  a  quarry 
for  building  stone ;  that  with  the  advent  of  the  Social  War  they 
were  hastily  repaired  on  the  north,  east,  and  south  sides,  and 
strengthened  by  towers,  but  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  renew 
the  fortifications  on  the  steep  southwest  side,  between  the  Her- 


Fig.  108. —  Plan  of  a  section  of  the  city  wall. 

A.  Inner  wall  with  buttresses  and  abutments. 

B.  Outer  wall. 

C.  Filling  of  earth  between  the  stone  walls. 

D.  Tower. 

E.  Stairs  leading  to  the  top  of  the  wall. 


THE  i)efb:nces  of  the  city 


239 


culaneum  Gate  and  the  Forum  Triangulare,  where  the  line  of 
the  old  wall  was  covered  with  buildings. 

When  the  towers  were    added  —  probably   not    long   before 


b;^pfc  v.^  'i^^;:A.'^y**  -^    ■   . 

jKfl||^|H 

'^^^1 

>aH 

I'.-V              ■ 

^->';:-'"-''^  - 

^'imKM 

'\\)<LiL  it7  >o 


LfciiVu; 


'^. 


s/ 


tM 


i'W^l 


^^^Mi 


^^n 


Fig.  log. —  \'ie\v  of  the  city  wall,  inside,  where  the  embankment  has  been  removed.     The 
door  in  the  tower  at  the  left  marks  the  height  of  the  embankment.  T]^-»^>  \> 


90  B.C. — they  were  not  distributed  evenly  along  the  wall,  but 
were  placed  where  they  seemed  to  be  most  needed.  The 
western   portion    of   the  ridge  between   the    Flerculaneum   and 


240  POMPEII 

Capua  Gates  was  particularly  favorable  for  the  approach  of 
an  enemy ;  hence  three  towers  were  built  near  together  here, 
numbered  lo,  ii,  and  12  on  Plan  I.  Another  part  of  the 
wall  especially  exposed  was  on  the  southeast  side,  where 
the  height  covered  by  the  city  slopes  gradually  down  to  the 
plain ;  and  we  find  five  towers  within  a  comparatively  short 
distance,  two  east  of  the  Amphitheatre,  the  other  three  further 
south.  On  the  north  side,  between  the  Capua  and  Sarno 
gates,  the  slope  is  steeper  and  two  towers  were  thought  to  be 
sufficient. 

That  there  were  once  two  additional  towers,  besides  the  ten 
that  have  been  enumerated,  is  evident  from  several  Oscan 
inscriptions,  painted  in  red  letters  on  the  street  walls  of  houses. 
One  of  them,  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  house  of  the 
Faun,  reads  thus:  'This  way  leads  between  Towers  10  and  11, 
where  Titus  Fisanius  is  in  command.'  The  street  referred  to 
runs  between  the  tenth  and  twelfth  Insulae  of  Region  VI,  direct 
to  the  city  wall.  Two  others  refer  to  a  'Tower  12'  near  the 
Herculaneum  Gate,  this  part  of  the  fortifications  being  in  charge 
of  Maras  Adirius. 

In  a  fourth  inscription  we  read  :  '  This  way  leads  between 
the  houses  of  Maras  Castricius  and  of  Maras  Spurnius,  where 
Vibius  Seximbrius  is  in  command.'  In  1897,  a  fifth  inscription 
became  visible  on  the  north  side  of  Insula  VIII.  v-vi,  where  it 
had  been  concealed  by  a  coat  of  plaster :  '  This  way  leads  to 
the  city  building  (and)  to  Minerva.'  The  street  referred  to  is 
seemingly  the  blind  alley  which  formerly  ran  through  the  insula 
(Plan  I).  If  this  is  correct,  the  sanctuary  of  Minerva  is  the 
Doric  .-temple  in  the  Forum  Triangulare  ;  but  the  '  city  building ' 
cannot  be  identified. 

The  five  inscriptions  evidently  date  from  the  siege  of  Sulla ; 
they  were  intended  for  the  information  of  the  soldiers,  belong- 
ing to  the  army  of  the  Allies,  who  were  quartered  in  the  city  to 
assist  in  its  defence.  At  this  time  there  must  have  been  twelve 
towers,  that  near  the  Herculaneum  Gate  being  reckoned  last  in 
the  enumeration,  as  in  Plan  I ;  but  the  location  of  the  two  that 
have  disappeared  has  not  been  determined.  Another  sug- 
gestive   reminder   of    the    same    siege   is    the    name    l  •  svla, 


THE    DEFENCES   UE   THE    CITV 


241 


scratched  by  a  soldier  in  tlie  stucco  on  the  inside  of  Tower  10, 
near  a  loophole. 

The  towers,  which  measure  approximately  31  by  25  feet, 
were  built  in  two 
stories,  with  strong 
vaulted  ceilings. 
The  floor  of  the  sec- 
ond story  was  on  a 
level  with  the  top  of 
the  wall,  and  over 
this  story  was  a  ter- 
race with  battle- 
ments, as  shown  in 
Fig.  1 10;  the  roof 
seen  on  the  two 
towers  in  Fig.  loi 
was  a  later  addition, 

made  when  the  city  .^^..,;-^,,,v.  -^r-'-x-r---—'^^^^^^^:,,,^,,,,^^,^,,^,^^^^^^^ 
walls  were  no  longer  '    -c''\.      r         (*u     ■,       u      ,     a 

o  F)g.  no. —  linver  of  the  city  wall,  restored. 

needed   as  a  means  <:Oi-c|  v^^,,./,-.  ^^^^l -v-u>..t.^  ^^r^  ,  2-— -••^-^--f^  3>  *^ 

of  defence.  Stairways  on  the  inside  gave  ready  access  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  towers,  which  could  be  entered  from  the  city 
by  a  door  (Fig.  109)  opening  on  the  enbankment.  On  the  out- 
side were  loopholes.  Below,  at  the  right,  was  a  sally  port,  placed 
thus  in  order  that  the  soldiers  when  rushing  forth  might  present 
their  shields  to  the  enemy,  leaving  the  right  hand  free  to  use 
with  offensive  weapons  ;  when  returning  to  the  wall  they  would, 
if  possible,  cut  their  way  to  the  sally  port  in  the  next  tower  to 
the  right,  so  as  to  avoid  the  danger  of  exposing  their  right  sides 
to  the  enemy. 

Four  of  the  gates  have  been  excavated,  the  Porta  Marina  and 
the  Stabian,  Nola  and  Herculaneum  gates ;  two  others,  the 
Vesuvius  and  Sarno  gates,  have  been  partly  exposed  to  view. 
The  remaining  two  are  still  completely  covered.  All  bear  evi- 
dence of  extensive  repairs,  and  one  of  them,  the  Herculaneum 
Gate,  was  entirely  rebuilt  at  a  comparatively  late  period  ;  with 
this  exception,  however,  they  seem  to  have  assumed  their  pres- 
ent form  in  the  Tufa  Period.     Three  of  them  still  retain  traces 


242 


POMPEII 


of  decoration  of  the  first  style  on  the  inner  parts.    The  different 
gateways  enter  the  walls  at  various  angles. 

The  Stabian  Gate  may  be  taken  as  typical.  Entering  from 
the  outside,  at  A,  one  came  through  a  vaulted  passage,  B,  about 

twelve  feet  wide,  to  a 
broad  middle  passage, 
or  vantage  court,  open 
to  the  sky,  into  which 
missiles  and  boiling 
pitch  could  be  hurled 
from  above  upon  the 
heads  of  an  enemy  at- 
tempting to  force  the 
gates  ;  then  followed  a 
second  vaulted  pas- 
sage, a  little  wider  than 
the  other,  in  which  were 
hung  the  heavy  double 
doors,  opening  out- 
ward. The  project- 
ing posts  of  the  doors 
are  preserved,  as  are  also  the  stones  on  which  they  rested 
when  they  were  swung  back  against  the  wall ;  the  vaulting  has 
been  restored.  The  gateway  was  paved  throughout,  with  a 
raised  walk  on  the  right  side.  On  one  side  of  the  inner  en- 
trance is  a  well  (a),  the  Gorgon's  head  upon  the  curb  reminding 
one  of  the  protectress  of  the  gate ;  on  the  other,  the  flight  of 
steps  already  mentioned  (//)  leads  to  the  top  of  the  wall.  Just 
beyond  the  steps  are  the  remains  of  a  small  building,  perhaps 
the  lodge  of  the  gate  keeper  {c). 

The  patron  divinity  of  city  gates,  Minerva,  was  probably 
honored  with  a  small  statue  in  the  niche  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
wall  of  the  vantage  court.  Two  inscriptions  commemorate  the 
making  of  repairs  on  the  thoroughfare  passing  under  the  gate- 
way. One  of  them  (at  d)  is  the  Oscan  inscription  recording 
the  work  of  the  aediles  Sittius  and  Pontius,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made  (p.  184).  The  other  (at  e)  is  in  Latin, 
and  of  much  later  date.     It  informs  us  that  the  duumvirs  L. 


Fig.  III. 

B.  Outer  passage. 

C.  Vantage  court. 

D.  Doors. 
a.    Well. 


Plan  of  the  Stabian  Gate. 

b.  Steps  leading  to  the  top  of  the  wall. 

c.  Gatekeeper's  lodge. 

d.  Oscan  inscription. 

e.  Latin  inscription. 


THE   DEFENCES   OF   THE   CITY 


243 


Avianius  Flaccus  and  O.  Spedius  Firmus  at  their  own  expense 
paved  the  road  *  from  the  milestone,'  which  must  have  been 
near  the  gate,  '  to  the  station  of  the  gig  drivers  {cisiarios),  at 
the  Hmits  of  the  territory  of  the  Pompeians.'  The  Roman  gigs, 
cisia,  were  very  hght,  and  adapted  for  rapid  travelHng ;  they 
were  drawn  by  horses  or  mules,  and  were  kept  for  hire  at 
stations  along  the  highways.  The  site  of  the  station  between 
Pompeii  and  Stabiae  is  not  known. 

The  Nola  Gate,  and  the  partially  excavated  Vesuvius  and 
Sarno  gates,  follow  the  plan  just  described  in  all  essential  par- 
ticulars. The  inner  keystone  of  the  Nola  Gate,  facing  the  city, 
is  ornamented  with  a  helmeted  head  of  Minerva,  in  high  relief, 
which  being  of  tufa  has  suffered  from  exposure  to  the  weather. 
There  was  once  an  Oscan  inscription  near  by,  which  stated  that 
the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  city,  Vibius  Popidius,  let  the 
contract  for  building  this  gate,  and  accepted  the  structure  from 
the  contractor. 

The  front  of  the  Porta 
Marina  has  the  appearance 
of  a  tower  projecting  from 
the  wall.  The  gateway 
consists  simply  of  two 
vaulted  entrances,  of  un- 
equal wddth  ;  one  for  vehi- 
cles, the  other,  at  the  left, 
for  pedestrians.  Both  were 
closed  by  doors.  In  the 
niche  at  the  right  of  the 
wider    passage    the    lower 

part  of  a  terra  cotta  statue  of  Minerva  was  found.  There  was 
no  vantage  court,  no  inner  passage ;  but  in  the  early  years  of 
the  Roman  colony  the  steep  lower  end  of  the  Via  Marina  for  a 
distance  of  70  feet  was  covered  with  a  vaulted  roof,  which  still 
remains.  Opening  into  this  corridor  on  the  right  is  a  long  narrow 
room,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  foundations  of  the  court  of 
the  temple  of  Venus  Pompeiana,  and  is  now  used  as  a  Museum. 

This  gate  in  its  present  form  could  hardly  have  been  in- 
tended for  defence ;   it  was  adapted  rather  for  administrative 


112. —  Plan  of  the  Herculaneum  Gate. 


A.  Steps  leading  to  the  top  of  the  city  wall. 

B.  Room  belonging  to  the  house  at  the  left  of  the  Gate. 


244 


POMPEII 


purposes,  and  must  have  been  built  —  probably  in  the  place  of 
an  earlier  structure  —  in  a  period  when  the  possibility  of  war 
seemed  remote.  Such  a  time,  as  previously  remarked,  was  the 
second  century  B.C.,  particularly  the  latter  half,  after  the  de- 
struction of  Carthage. 

A  still  more  peaceful  aspect  is  presented  by  the  Herculaneum 
Gate.  The  style  of  masonry  —  rubble  work  with  t'/z/i- ;;//>///;;/ 
at  the  corners  —  points  to  the  end  of  the  Republic,  rather  than 


Fig.  113.  —  Herculaneum  Gate,  looking  down  the  Street  of  Tombs. 
The  corners  of  the  entrances  are  opus  mixtuni,  a  course  of  brick-shaped  blocks  of  stone 
alternating  with  three  courses  of  bricks. 


to  the  Empire,  as  the  period  of  construction.  Here  we  find 
three  vaulted  passages,  the  middle  one  for  vehicles,  those  on 
either  side  for  pedestrians.  The  vaulting  over  the  middle  part 
of  the  gate  has  disappeared  ;  but  according  to  appearances  a  van- 
tage court  was  left  here,  in  the  middle  passage,  if  not  in  those  at 
the  sides ;  at  the  inner  end  of  this  court  the  gates  were  placed. 
The  greater  part  of  the  structure  served  no  purpose  of  utility ;  it 
was  obviously  designed  as  a  monumental  entrance  to  the  city. 


PART    II 

THE     HOUSES 
CHAPTER    XXXIII 

THE  POMP  El  AN  HOUSE 

Our  chief  sources  of  information  regarding  the  domestic 
architecture  of  ancient  Italy  are  two,  —  the  treatise  of  Vitruvius, 
and  the  remains  found  at  Pompeii.  The  Pompeian  houses  pre- 
sent many  variations  from  the  plan  described  by  the  Roman 
architect ;  yet  in  essential  particulars  there  is  no  disagreement, 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  form  a  clear  conception  of  their  arrange- 
ments. 

The  houses  of  Greco-Roman  antiquity  differed  from  those  of 
modern  times  in  several  respects.  They  took  their  light  and  air 
from  the  inside,  the  apartments  being  grouped  about  a  court  or 
about  a  large  central  room  which  ordinarily  had  an  opening  in 
the  ceiling  ;  the  distribution  of  space  being  thus  made  on  a  differ- 
ent principle,  the  large  rooms  were  often  larger,  the  small  rooms 
smaller  and  more  numerous  than  in  modern  dwellings  of  corre- 
sponding size  ;  and  in  the  better  houses  the  decoration  of  both 
walls  and  floors  was  more  permanent  than  is  usual  in  our  day. 
The  ancient  houses  were  relatively  low,  in  most  cases,  if  we 
except  the  crowded  tenements  of  imperial  Rome,  not  exceeding 
two  stories.  The  windows  in  the  outside  walls  were  generally 
few  and  small,  and  the  external  appearance  was  not  unlike  that 
of  Oriental  houses  of  the  present  time.  In  the  city  house  the 
large  front  entrance  was  frequently  ornamented  with  carved 
posts  and  lintel. 

The  development  of  the  Italic  house  can  be  traced  at  Pompeii 
over  a  period  of  almost  four  hundred  years.     The  earlier  form 

245 


246 


POMPEII 


consisted  of  a  single  series  of  apartments,  —  a  central  room, 
atrium,  with  smaller  rooms  opening  into  it,  and  a  garden  at  the 
rear;  an  example  is  the  house  of  the  Surgeon  (p.  280).  A  res- 
toration of  such  a  house  with  its  high  atrium,  wide  front  door, 
and  garden  is  shown  in  Fig.  114. 


Fig.  114.  —  Early  Pompeian  houst,  icbtoied. 


Later,  under  Greek  influence,  a  court  with  a  colonnade  and 
surrounding  rooms  was  added.  This  was  called  peristy/iinu, 
'peristyle';  it  is  simply  the  more  elaborate  inner  part  of  the 
Greek  house,  andronitis,  joined  to  the  dwelling  of  Italic  origin. 
We  find  the  union  of  atrium  and  peristyle  with  their  respective 
groups  of  apartments  fully  accomplished  in  the  second  century 
B.C.,  the  Tufa  Period  ;  the  type  of  dwelling  thus  developed  re- 
mained in  vogue  during  Roman  times  and  is  often  called  the 
Roman  house. 


THE   POMPEIAN   HOUSE 


247 


The  double  origin  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  names  of  the 
rooms.  Those  of  the  front  part  are  designated  by  Latin  words, 
—  atrium^  fauces,  a/a,  tablinuni ;  but  the  apartments  at  the  rear 
bear  Greek  names,  — peristyliiim,  triclinium,  oeciis,  exedra.  In 
large  houses  both  atrium  and  peristyle  were  sometimes  dupli- 
cated. 

The  houses  of  Pompeii  impress  the  visitor  as  having  been  de- 
signed primarily  for  summer  use.  The  arrangements  contem- 
plate the  spending  of  much  time  in  the  open  air,  and  pains  was 
taken  to  furnish  protection  from  the  heat,  not  from  the  cold. 
The  greater  part  of  the  area  is  taken  up  by  colonnades,  gardens, 
and  courts ;  from  this  point  of  view  the  atrium  may  be  classed 
as  a  court.     The  living  rooms  had  high  ceilings.     In  summer 


JL  J^'"l    I  ^  *  *  p  i^_ 


Vestibulum     FaucM   /■  njjlupiu.  n.       TaJrlinum      % 


^  ^xeiJ-a. 


T 1  rn  r  T  T 1 


fosUcam. 
Fig.  115.  —  Plan  of  a  Pompeian  house. 

they  were  cool  and  airy,  in  winter  difficult  to  heat ;  they  were 
dark  and  close  when  the  door  was  shut,  cold  when  it  was  open. 

With  a  single  exception  the  arrangements  for  heating  so  often 
met  with  in  the  remains  of  houses  discovered  in  northern  coun- 
tries are  found  at  Pompeii  only  in  connection  with  bath-rooms ; 
the  cold  was  ineffectively  combated  by  means  of  braziers.  We 
are  led  to  believe  that  the  Pompeians  were  extremely  sensitive 
to  heat,  but  endured  cold  with  great  patience.  One  who  makes 
himself  familiar  with  the  arrangements  of  Italian  houses  to-day 
will  receive  a  similar  impression,  although  the  peculiarity  is  per- 
haps less  obvious  than  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  dwellings. 

In  describing  the  Pompeian  houses  it  is  more  convenient  to 
designate  the  principal  rooms  by  the  ancient  names.  In  Fig.  115 
we  present  an  ideal  plan  ;  in  it  the  names  are  given  to  the  parts 
of  the  house,  the  relative  location  of  which  is  subject  to  compara- 


248  POMPEII 

tively  little  variation.  These  parts  will  first  be  discussed ;  then 
those  will  be  taken  up  which  present  a  greater  diversity  in  their 
arrangements. 

I.    Vestibule,  Fauces,  and  Front  Door 

The  vestibuhini  was  the  space  between  the  front  door  and  the 
street.  The  derivation  of  the  word  (yve-  +  the  root  of  stare,  '  to 
stand  aside')  suggests  the  purpose;  the  vestibule  was  a  place 
where  one  could  step  aside  from  the  bustle  and  confusion  of  the 
street.  In  many  houses  there  was  no  vestibule,  the  front  door 
opening  directly  on  the  sidewalk  ;  and  where  vestibules  did  exist 
at  Pompeii,  they  were  much  more  modest  than  those  belonging 
to  the  houses  of  wealthy  Romans,  to  which  reference  is  so  fre- 
quently made  in  classical  writers.  Roman  vestibules  were  often 
supported  by  columns  of  costly  marbles,  and  adorned  with  stat- 
ues and  other  works  of  art.  Only  one  vestibule  at  Pompeii  was 
treated  as  a  portico,  that  of  the  house  of  the  Vestals  near  the 
Herculaneum  Gate.  This  was  once  as  wide  as  the  atrium,  the 
roof  being  carried  by  four  columns  ;  but  before  the  destruction 
of  the  city  two  partitions  were  built  parallel  with  the  sides  divid- 
ing it  into  three  parts,  a  narrow  vestibule  of  the  ordinary  type, 
with  a  shop  at  the  right  and  at  the  left. 

The  passage  inside  the  front  door  was  called  fauces,  or  pro- 
thyroii.  According  to  Vitruvius  the  width  of  it  in  the  case  of 
large  atriums  should  be  half,  in  smaller  atriums  two  thirds,  that 
of  the  tablinum  ;  at  Pompeii  the  width  is  generally  less  than  half. 
In  the  houses  of  the  Tufa  Period  the  corners  of  the  fauces  where 
it  opens  into  the  atrium  were  ornamented  with  pilasters  con- 
nected at  the  top  by  an  entablature. 

The  vestibule  and  fauces  were  ordinarily  of  the  same  width, 
and  were  separated  by  projecting  doorposts  with  a  slightly  raised 
threshold  (Fig.  ii6)  and  heavy  double  doors.  Sometimes,  as  in 
the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus,  there  was  in  addition  a  small  door 
at  the  side  of  the  vestibule  opening  into  a  narrow  passage  con- 
necting with  the  fauces  (Fig.  149).  In  such  cases  the  folding 
doors,  which  on  account  of  their  size  and  the  method  of  hanging 
must  always  have  been  hard  to  open,  were  generally  kept  shut. 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


249 


They  would  be  thrown  back  early  in  the  morning  for  the  recep- 
tion of  clients,  and  on  special  occasions ;  at  other  times  the  more 
convenient  small  door  would  be  used. 

In  several  instances  the  volcanic  dust  so  hardened  about  the 
lower  part  of  a  front  door  that  it  has  been  possible  to  make  a 
cast  by  pouring  soft  plaster  of  Paris  into  the  cavity  left  by  the 
crumbling  away  of  the  wood ;  there  are  several  of  these  casts  in 
the  Httle  Museum  at  Pompeii.     With  their  help,  and  with  the 

JP 


—  I       » 


a;[p 


-,0/5, 


'^^^^z-/'/^^;'/^/^/^'^^^;- . 


Door- 

Vtstibulum     po.^t 


Fig.  116. —  Plan  and  section  of  the  vestibule,  threshold,  and  fauces  of  the  house  of  Pansa. 


well  preserved  stone  thresholds  before  us,  it  is  possible  to  pic- 
ture to  ourselves  the  appearance  of  the  doorway. 

The  doorposts  were  protected  by  wooden  casings,  antepag- 
iHctita,  which  were  made  fast  at  the  bottom  by  means  of  holes 
in  the  threshold  (a,  a  in  Fig.  116). 

The  folding  doors  swung  on  pivots,  which  were  fitted  into 
sockets  in  the  threshold  (/3,  yS)  and  in  the  lintel.  The  pivots 
were  of  wood,  but  were  provided  —  at  least  the  lower  ones  — 
with  a  cylindrical  cap  of  iron  or  bronze,  and  the  socket  had 
a  protective  lining  of  the  same  metal.      Both  caps  and  sockets, 


250  POMPEII 

especially  those  of  bronze,  are  found  in  the  thresholds  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation.  It  seems  strange  that  ancient 
builders  did  not  use  smaller  pivots  of  solid  metal,  on  which  the 
doors  would  have  turned  much  more  easily  ;  but  a  conservative 
tradition  in  this  regard  prevailed  against  innovation. 

The  fastenings  were  elaborate.  Near  the  inner  edge  of  each 
door  was  a  vertical  bolt,  which  shot  into  a  hole  in  the  threshold 
(7,  7) ;  there  was  probably  a  corresponding  bolt  at  the  top, 
as  in  the  case  of  large  modern  doors.  Sometimes  there  was  a 
heavy  iron  lock,  turned  with  a  key,  and  also  an  iron  bar  which 
was  fastened  across  the  crack  in  such  a  way  as  to  tie  the  two  folds 
together.  In  many  houses  there  are  holes  in  the  walls  of  the 
fauces,  just  back  of  the  door,  in  which  at  night  a  strong  wooden 
I  bar,  sera,  was  placed ;  hardly  less  often  we  find  a  hole  in  the 
floor  a  few  feet  back,  in.  which  one  end  of  a  slanting  prop  was 
set,  the  other  end  being  braced  against  the  middle  of  the  door. 
These  arrangements  bring  to  mind  Juvenal's  vivid  picture  of  the 
disturbances  and  dangers  of  the  streets  of  Rome  at  night. 

II.    The  Atrium 

An  atrium  completely  covered  by  a  roof  was  extremely  rare. 
With  few  exceptions,  there  was  a  large  rectangular  opening 
over  the  middle,  compluvium,  toward  which  the  roof  sloped 
from  all  sides  (Figs.  114,  118).  In  the  floor,  directly  under  the 
compluvium,  was  a  shallow  basin,  impluviinii,  into  which  the 
rain  water  fell  {Ji  in  Fig.  118).  The  impluvium  had  two  outlets. 
One  was  connected  with  the  cistern  ;  a  round  cistern  mouth, 
puteal,  ornamented  with  carving,  often  stood  near  the  edge  of 
the  basin,  as  in  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet  (Fig.  153).  The 
other  outlet  led  under  the  floor  to  the  street  in  front,  carrying 
off  the  overflow  when  the  cistern  was  full,  and  also  the  water 
used  in  cleaning  the  floor.  In  the  better  houses  a  fountain  was 
often  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  impluvium. 

Vitruvius  (VI.  iii.  i  et  seg.)  mentions  five  kinds  of  atriums, 
the  basis  of  classification  being  the  construction  of  the  roof  — 
Tuscan,  tetrastyle,  Corinthian,  displuviate,  and  tortoise  atriums. 
The  first  three  are  well  illustrated  at  Pompeii. 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


251 


The  Tuscan  atrium,  supposed  by  the  Romans  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Etruscans,  was  apparently  the  native  Italic 
form.  Two  heavy  girders  were  placed  across  the  room,  above 
the  ends  of  the  impluvium  (Fig.  117,  b).  On  these,  two  shorter 
crossbeams  were  laid  (r),  over  the  sides  of  the  impluvium.  The 
corners  of  the  rectangular  frame  thus  made  were  connected 
with  the  walls  at  the  corners  of  the  atrium  by  four  strong  slant- 
ing beams  (Figs.  117,  118,  e).  On  these  and  on  the  frame  were 
placed  the  lower  ends  of  the 
sloping  rafters  (Fig.  117,  _/"), 
carrying  the  tiles,  the  arrange- 
ment of  which  can  be  seen  in 
Figs.  114,  117,  and  118.  This 
was  the  most  common  arrange- 
ment of  the  roof  at  Pompeii. 

The  edge  of  the  compluvium 
was  frequently  ornamented  with 
terra  cotta  waterspouts,  repre- 
senting the  heads  of  animals. 
In  a  house  near  the  Porta  Marina 
the  projecting  foreparts  of  dogs  a,  a.  sidewaiis. 
and  lions  were  used  in  place  of    '■  o- "f  <he  two  gWers  supporting  the  roof. 

I  c.    Crossbeam,  resting  on  the  two  girders. 

the  heads  ;  the  remains  of  a  part    <(■  short  beam  of  the  thickness  of  c 

r     .-,  ,         •  1  1  e.    Corner  beam. 

of  the  compluvium   have  been    ^  R^f^^^^  ,i„pi„g  ,^^^,^  ^^e  inside. 
put  together  again,  and  are  seen    s-  Compiuvium. 

I.    Y\?A<\\^^,tegulae. 
m      rig.     119.         Ine     lions     were      2.    Semicylindrical  tiles  for  covering  the  joints, 

placed  over   the   larger  spouts  imbrices. 

^  3-    Gutter  tiles. 

at  the  four  corners ;  the  under 

side  of  the  spouts  surmounted  by  the  dogs  and  lions  was  orna- 
mented with  acanthus  leaves  in  relief.  The  same  illustration 
presents  an  example  of  the  antefixes  sometimes  found. 

The  tetrastyle  atrium  differed  from  the  Tuscan  in  only  one 
respect :  there  were  four  columns  supporting  the  roof,  one  at 
each  corner  of  the  impluvium.  In  most  cases  these  supports, 
which  interfered  with  the  view  of  the  interior,  can  hardly  have 
been  intended  primarily  for  ornament ;  they  simplified  the  con- 
struction, making  the  ceiling  and  roof  firm  without  the  use  of 
the  heavy  and  expensive  girders. 


.an  atrium:  plan  of  the 
roof. 


25^ 


POMPEII 


^i    V  4.-'  (^ 


The  Corinthian  atrium  had  a  larger  compkivium  than  the 
other  kinds,  the  roof  being  supported  by  a  number  of  columns. 
There  are  three  examples  at  Pompeii,  the  houses  of  Epidius 
Rufus  with  sixteen  columns  (p.  310),  of  Castor  and  Pollux  with 
twelve,  and  of  the  Fullonica  with  six. 

The  roof  of  the  displuviate  atrium  sloped  from  the  middle 
toward  the  sides,  the  water  being  carried  off  by  lead  pipes. 
The  aperture  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air  was  relatively 

much  higher  above  the  floor 
than  in  the  kinds  previously 
described.  No  example  of 
^  "^  this  type  has  been  found  at 
Pompeii. 

The  tortoise  atrium, 
atriiiui  testudinatitni,  was 
small  and  without  a  com- 
pkivium. The  roof  had  a 
pyramidal  shape.  There 
were  possibly  a  few  exam- 
ples at  Pompeii,  as  we  may 
infer  from  the  occasional 
absence  of  an  impluvium ; 
in  the  only  instance,  how- 
ever, in  which  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  form  of  the  roof 
(V.  v.  1-2),  this  must  have  been  very  different  from  that  referred 
to  by  the  Roman  writer  (p.  343). 

Vitruvius  says  further  that  the  atrium  should  have  an  oblong 
shape,  the  width  being  three  fifths  or  two  thirds  of  the  length, 
or  measured  on  the  side  of  a  square,  the  hypothenuse  of  which 
is  taken  for  the  length.  The  design  was  obviously  to  bring 
the  sides  nearer  together,  thus  lessening  the  strain  on  the  two 
girders  which  in  the  commonest  form  were  used  to  sustain  the 
roof.  The  height,  to  the  frame  of  the  compluvium,  should  be 
three  fourths  of  the  width. 

In  the  case  of  the  tetrastyle  and  Corinthian  atriums  at  Pompeii 
the  height  is  indicated  by  that  of  the  columns,  but  there  are 
rarely  adequate  data  for  determining  the  height  of  the  others 
with  exactness.     In  regard  to  length  and  breadth  the  propor- 


Fig.  118.  —  A  Tuscan  atrium:  section. 
b.    Girder.  i.    Flat  tiles. 

e.    Corner  rafter.  2.    Semicylindrical  tiles. 

h.    Impluvium. 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


253 


tions  harmonize  fairly  well  with  those  recommended  by  Vitru- 
vius ;  but  the  height,  in  the  cases  in  which  it  can  be  ascertained, 
is  often  greater  than  that  contemplated  by  the  rules  of  the 
architect. 

Looking  at  the  Pompeian  atriums  in  their  present  condition 
(Plate  VII,  Figs.  121,  153)  one  might  easily  receive  the  impres- 
sion that  they  were  primarily  courts  rather  than  rooms.  In  this 
respect  the  restorations  of  Roman  houses  in  the  older  books  are 
often  at  fault,  the  atrium  being  generally  represented  as  too  low 
in  comparison  with  the  rooms  around  it. 


Fig.  119.  —  Corner  of  a  compluvium  with  waterspouts  and  antefixes,  reconstructed. 


The  references  in  the  ancient  writers  uniformly  point  to  this 
as  the  principal  room  of  the  house.  In  the  earliest  times  the 
hearth  stood  here  ;  a  hole  in  the  roof  served  as  a  chimney.  The 
accumulation  of  soot  on  the  ceiling  and  the  walls  suggested 
the  characteristic  name  'black  room';  for  atrium  comes  from 
ater,  'black.'  Here  the  household  gathered  at  mealtime  ;  here 
they  worked,  or  rested  from  their  labors.  In  the  atrium  I.ucre- 
tia  sat  with  her  maids  spinning  late  at  night  when  her  husband 
entered  unexpectedly  with  his  friends. 

Such  the  atrium  remained  in  farmhouses  to  the  latest  times. 
The  name  meanwhile  was  transferred  to  the  •corresponding 
apartment  of  elegant  city  homes,  while  in  the  country  it  went 
out  of  use,  being  replaced  by  c/ilina,  '  kitchen,'  on  account  of 


254  POMPEII 

the  presence  of  the  hearth.  In  such  a  room  in  his  Sabine  villa 
Horace  loved  to  dine,  conversing  on  topics  grave  or  gay  with 
his  rustic  neighbors,  and  partaking  of  the  simple  fare  with 
relish ;  while  his  slaves,  freed  from  the  restraints  of  city  life, 
were  permitted  to  eat  at  the  same  time,  sitting  at  a  separate 
table.  The  remains  of  an  atrium  of  this  kind,  with  its  hearth 
and  niche  for  the  images  of  the  household  gods,  may  be  seen  in 
the  villa  recently  excavated  near  Boscoreale  (p.  361). 

Without  doubt  some  houses  of  the  ancient  type  might  be 
found  in  cities,  even  in  Rome,  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  Repub- 
lic. We  read  of  one  in  Cicero's  time  in  the  atrium  of  which 
spinning  was  done.  But  at  Pompeii  the  hearth  had  been  ban- 
ished from  the  atrium  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  in  the 
Tufa  Period  if  not  before ;  and  the  room  was  made  uncom- 
fortable to  sit  in,  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  year,  by  the 
broad  opening  of  the  compluvium. 

From  the  architectural  point  of  view,  however,  the  atrium 
never  lost  its  significance  as  the  central  apartment.  In  all  its 
dimensions,  but  particularly  in  height,  it  presents  so  great  a 
contrast  with  the  rooms  around  it  as  to  remind  us  of  the  rela- 
tion of  a  Roman  Catholic  church  to  the  chapels  at  the  sides. 
The  impression  of  spaciousness  was  perhaps  deepened  when 
the  atrium  was  provided  with  a  ceiling.  Few  traces  of  such 
ceilings  are  found  at  Pompeii,  and  in  the  smaller  houses  the 
inside  of  the  roof  seems  generally  to  have  been  visible. 

The  atrium  of  the  Corinthian  type  most  nearly  resembled  a 
court,  on  account  of  the  size  of  the  opening  to  the  sky  and  the 
use  of  many  columns.  A  suggestion  of  the  un-Italic  character 
of  this  type  appears  in  the  name ;  for  one  can  scarcely  suppose 
that  atriums  in  the  strict  sense  existed  at  Corinth. 

Although  the  Pompeian  atriums  show  no  traces  of  a  hearth, 
there  is  possibly  a  reminiscence  of  the  ancient  arrangement 
in  the  gartibnbini,  a  table  which  we  frequently  find  at  the  rear 
of  the  impluvium.  Varro  says  that  since  his  boyhood  these 
tables,  on  which  vessels  of  bronze  were  placed,  had  gone  out 
of  use  ;  at  Pompeii  they  remained  in  fashion  much  longer.  The 
gartibulum  with  its  bronze  vases  may  symbolize  the  ancient 
hearth  with  the  cooking  utensils.     Possibly,  however,  it  repre- 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


255 


sents  the  kitchen  table  near  the  hearth  on  which  the  dishes 
were  washed ;  that  it  may  have  served  a  similar  purpose  in 
later  times  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  in  front  of  it  a  marble 
pedestal  was  often  placed  for  a  statuette  which  threw  a  jet  of 
water  into  a  marble  basin  at  the  edge  of  the  impluvium.  This 
group  of  table,  fountain  figure,  and  basin  appears  in  many 
Pompeian  atriums.  In  Plate  VII  we  see  the  gartibulum  and 
the  supports  of  the  marble- basin,  but  the  base  of  the  fountain 
figure  has  disappeared. 

The  strong  box  of  the  master  of  the  house,  area,  often  stood 
in  the  atrium,  usually  against  one  of  the  side  walls.  It  was 
sometimes  adorned  with  re- 
liefs, as  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  120,  which  is  now  in  the 
Naples  Museum.  It  stood  on 
a  heavy  block  of  stone,  or  low 
foundation  of  masonry,  to 
which  it  was  attached  by  an 
iron  rod  passing  down  through 
the  bottom.  A  wealthy  Pom- 
peian sometimes  had  more 
than  one  of  these  chests. 

In  three  atriums  the  herm 
of  the  proprietor  stands  at  the  rear.     One,  with  the  portrait  of 
Cornelius  Rufus,  is  shown  in  Fig.  121. 

When  there  were  two  atriums  in  a  house,  the  larger  was  more 
elaborately  furnished  than  the  other,  and  was  set  aside  for  the 
public  or  official  life  of  the  proprietor  ;  the  smaller  one  was  used 
for  domestic  purposes.  Typical  examples  are  found  in  the 
houses  of  the  Faun  and  of  the  Labyrinth.  In  the  former  the 
principal  atrium  is  of  the  Tuscan  type,  the  other  tetrastyle ;  in 
the  latter  the  large  atrium  is  tetrastyle,  the  smaller  Tuscan. 


Fig.  120.  —  A  Pompeian's  strong  box,  area. 


III.    The  Tablinum 

The  tablinum  was  a  large  room  at  the  rear  of  the  atrium, 
opening  into  the  latter  with  its  whole  width  ;  the  connection  ot 
the  two  rooms  is  clearly  shown  in   Plate  VII   and   Fig.    121, 


256 


POMPEII 


According  to  Vitruvius,  when  the  atrium  was  30  to  40  feet 
in  width  —  as  in  the  larger  Pompeian  houses  —  the  tablinum 
should  be  half  as  wide ;  when  the  atrium  was  smaller,  the  width 
of  the  tablinum  should  be  two  thirds  that  of  the  atrium,  while 
the  height  at  the  entrance  should  be  nine  eighths,  and  inside 
four    thirds    of    the    width.     These    proportions    will    not    hold 


Fig.  121. — Atrium  of  the  house  of  Cornelius  Rufus,  looking  through  the  tablinum  and 

andron  into  the  peristyle. 

In  the  foreground,  the  impluvium,  with  the  carved  supports  of  amarble  table;  at  tlie  left, 

between  the  entrances  to  the  andron  and  the  tablinum,  the  herm  of  Rufus. 


good  for  Pompeii,  where  the  tablinum   is  generally  narrower 
and  higher  (Vitr.  VI.  iv.  5,  6). 

The  posts  at  the  entrance  were  usually  treated  as  pilasters, 
joined  above  by  a  cornice  ;  architecturally  the  front  of  this  room 
formed  the  most  impressive  feature  of  the  atrium.  Between  the 
pilasters  hung  portieres,  which  might  be  drawn  back  and  fas- 
tened at  the  sides.  In  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding  the 
fastenings  were  found  in  place,  —  bronze  disks  from  which  a 
ship's  beak  projected,  attached  to  the  pilasters, 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE  257 

In  early  times  the  tablinum  ordinarily  had  an  opening  at  the 
rear  also,  but  this  was  not  so  high  as  that  in  front,  and  could  be 
closed  by  broad  folding  doors.  In  winter  the  doors  were  prob- 
ably kept  shut.  In  summer  they  were  left  open  and  the  room, 
cool  and  airy,  served  as  a  dining  room,  a  use  which  harmonizes 
well  with  a  passage  of  Varro  explaining  the  derivation  of  the 
name.  "  In  the  olden  time,"  says  this  writer,  "  people  used  to 
take  their  meals  in  the  winter  by  the  hearth ;  in  summer  they 
ate  out  of  doors,  country  folk  in  the  court,  city  people  in  the 
tabnlinum,  which  we  understand  to  have  been  a  summer  house 
built  of  boards."  The  derivation  of  tabnlinum,  of  which  tabli- 
iiHDi  is  a  shortened  form,  from  tabula,  'a  board,'  is  obvious. 

The  period  to  which  Varro  refers  antedates  that  of  the  oldest 
houses  at  Pompeii.  The  room  which  we  call  tablinum  was  then 
a  deep  recess  at  the  rear  of  the  atrium,  open  at  the  front,  as 
now,  but  enclosed  by  a  wall  at  the  rear ;  against  this  wall  was  a 
veranda  opening  into  the  garden,  toward  which  the  board  roof 
sloped.  People  took  their  meals  in  the  veranda  in  summer,  and 
to  it  the  name  tablinum  was  naturally  applied.  In  ihe  recess 
at  the  rear  of  the  atrium,  corresponding  to  the  later  tablinum, 
was  the  bed  of  the  master  of  the  house,  called  Icctus  advcrsus 
because  '  facing '  one  who  entered  the  front  door.  As  late  as 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  long  after  it  became  the  custom  to  set 
aside  a  closed  apartment  for  the  family  room,  a  reminiscence  of 
the  ancient  arrangement  still  remained  in  the  couch  which  stood 
at  the  rear  of  the  atrium  or  in  the  tablinum,  which  was  called 
Icctus  advcrsus,  or  even  Icctus  gctiialis. 

The  removal  of  the  hearth  and  the  bed  from  the  atrium  must 
have  taken  place  when  the  small  hole  in  the  roof  was  replaced 
by  the  compluvium.  A  broad  opening  was  made  in  the  rear 
wall,  and  the  place  where  the  bed  had  been  was  turned  into  a 
light,  airy  room  ;  this  was  now  used  as  a  summer  room  instead  of 
the  veranda,  the  name  of  which  was  in  consequence  transferred 
to  it. 

Even  in  later  times,  when  the  houses  were  extended  by  the 
addition,  at  the  rear,  of  a  peristyle  with  its  group  of  apartments, 
the  tablinum  may  often  have  been  used  as  a  summer  dining 
room ;  but  the  tendency  now  was  to  withdraw  the  family  life 


258  POMPEII 

into  the  more  secluded  rooms  about  the  peristyle.  The  tab- 
linum,  lying  between  the  front  and  the  rear  of  the  house,  was 
used  as  a  reception  room  for  guests  who  were  not  admitted  into 
the  privacy  of  the  home ;  and  here  undoubtedly  the  master  of 
the  house  received  his  clients. 

In  the  house  of  the  Vettii  the  tablinum  is  omitted  on  account 
of  the  abundance  of  room ;  but  at  the  rear  of  the  atrium  there 
are  wide  openings  into  the  peristyle  (Fig.  158). 

IV.    The  Alae 

The  alae,  the  'wings'  of  the  atrium,  were  two  deep  recesses 
in  the  sides  (Fig.  115).  They  were  ordinarily  at  the  rear,  but 
were  sometimes  placed  at  the  middle,  as  in  the  house  of  Epidius 
Rufus  ( Fig.  149).  Vitruvius  (VI.  iv.  4)  says  that  where  the  atrium 
is  from  30  to  40  feet  long,  one  third  of  the  length  should  be 
taken  for  the  breadth  of  the  alae ;  in  the  case  of  larger  atriums 
the  breadth  of  these  rooms  should  be  proportionally  less,  being 
fixed  at  one  fifth  of  the  length  for  atriums  from  80  to  100  feet 
long ;  the  height  at  the  entrance  should  be  equal  to  the  breadth. 

At  Pompeii  the  alae,  as  the  tablinum,  are  narrower  and  higher 
than  required  by  these  proportions.  In  the  Tufa  Period  the 
entrances  were  ornamented  with  pilasters,  and  treated  like  the 
broad  entrance  of  the  tablinum. 

With  reference  to  the  purpose  and  uses  of  these  rooms  we 
have  no  information  beyond  a  remark  of  Vitruvius  in  regard  to 
placing  the  images  of  ancestors  in  them.  This  throws  no  light 
upon  their  origin ;  for  only  a  few  noble  families  could  have  pos- 
sessed a  sufficiently  large  number  of  ancestral  busts  or  masks  to 
make  it  necessary  to  provide  a  special  place  for  these,  while  the 
alae  form  an  essential  and  characteristic  part  of  the  Pompeian 
house.  Now  and  then  an  ala  was  used  as  a  dining  room  ;  more 
frequently,  perhaps,  one  was  utilized  for  a  wardrobe,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  traces  of  the  woodwork.  A  careful  study  of 
the  remains  only  deepens  the  impression  that  at  Pompeii  the 
alae  served  no  definite  purpose,  but  were  a  survival  from  a  pre- 
vious period,  in  which  they  responded  to  different  conditions  of 
life. 


THE    POiMPEIAN    HOUSE  259 

An  interesting  parallel  presents  itself  in  the  arrangements  of 
a  type  of  peasants'  house  found  in  Lower  Saxony.  The  main 
entrance,  as  in  the  early  Italic  house,  leads  into  a  large  and  high 
central  room  ;  at  the  sides  of  this  and  of  the  main  entrance  are 
the  living  rooms  and  stalls.  At  the  back  the  central  room  is 
widened  by  two  recesses  corresponding  with  the  alae  ;  the  hearth 
stands  against  the  rear  wall.  In  the  side  walls,  at  the  rear  of 
each  recess,  are  a  window  and  a  door.  The  two  windows  admit 
light  to  the  part  of  the  central  room  furthest  from  the  entrance ; 
the  doors  open  into  the  farmyard  and  the  garden. 

The  Italic  house  in  the  beginning  was  not  a  city  residence 
shut  in  by  party  walls,  but  the  isolated  habitation  of  a  country- 
man. The  design  of  the  alae,  as  of  the  recesses  in  the  Low 
Saxon  farmhouse,  was  to  furnish  light  to  the  atrium,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  completely  covered  by  a  roof,  there  being 
only  a  small  hole  to  let  out  the  smoke.  The  large  windows  in 
the  rear  of  the  alae  of  the  house  of  Sallust  may  be  looked  upon 
as  a  survival ;  but  in  city  houses  generally  light  could  not  be 
taken  in  this  way  from  the  sides.  After  the  compluvium  had 
come  into  general  use,  a  conservative  tradition  still  retained  the 
alae  whenever  possible,  though  they  no  longer  answered  their 
original  purpose. 

V.    The  Rooms  about  the  Atrium.     The  Andron 

In  front  there  were  rooms  at  either  side  of  the  entrance,  ordi- 
narily fitted  up  as  shops  and  opening  on  the  street,  but  sometimes 
used  as  dining  rooms  or  sleeping  rooms,  or  for  other  domestic 
purposes. 

On  each  side  of  the  atrium  were  two  or  three  small  sleeping 
rooms ;  in  narrow  houses  these,  as  well  as  one  or  both  of  the 
alae,  were  occasionally  omitted. 

At  the  rear  were  one  or  two  rooms  of  the  same  depth  as  the 
tablinum,  used  in  most  cases  as  dining  rooms.  They  frequently 
had  a  single  broad  entrance  on  the  side  of  the  peristyle  or  the 
garden  (Fig.  134,  22),  but  were  sometimes  entered  by  a  door 
from  the  atrium  or  from  one  of  the  alae  (Figs.  115,  121).  The 
door  on  the  side  of  the  atrium  seems  generally  to  have  been 


2  6o  POMPEII 

made  when  the  house  was  built ;  if  the  owner  did  not  wish  to 
use  it,  it  was  walled  up  and  treated  as  a  blind  door,  an  orna- 
ment of  the  atrium. 

The  rooms  about  the  atrium  in  the  pre- Roman  period  were 
made  high,  those  in  front  and  at  the  sides  often  measuring  fifteen 
feet  to  the  edge  of  the  ceiling,  which  had  the  form  of  a  groined 
vault.  The  rear  rooms  were  still  higher,  the  crown  of  the  vaults 
being  as  far  above  the  floor  as  the  flat  ceiling  of  the  tablinum. 
A  corresponding  height  was  given  to  the  doors ;  those  in  the 
house  of  the  Faun  measure  nearly  fourteen  feet.  The  upper 
part  of  the  doorway  was  doubtless  pierced  for  the  admission  of 
light  in  the  manner  indicated  by  wall  paintings,  and  shown  in 
our  restoration  of  one  side  of  the  atrium  in  the  house  of  Sallust 
(Figs.  261,  262). 

The  andron  was  a  passage  at  the  right  or  the  left  of  the  tab- 
linum, connecting  the  atrium  with  the  peristyle  (Figs.  115,  121). 
The  name  was  used  originally  to  designate  an  apartment  in  the 
Greek  house,  but  was  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  corridor.  In 
modern  times  the  passage  has  often  been  erroneously  called 
fauces. 

The  andron  is  lacking  only  in  small  houses,  or  in  those  in 
which  a  different  connection  is  made  between  the  front  and 
rear  portions  by  means  of  a  second  atrium,  or  other  rooms. 

VI.    Garden,  Peristyle,  and   Rooms  about   the    Peristyle 

A  few  Pompeian  houses,  like  those  of  the  olden  time,  are 
without  a  peristyle,  having  a  garden  at  the  rear.  In  such  cases 
there  is  a  colonnade  at  the  back  of  the  house,  facing  the  gar- 
den ;  this  is  the  arrangement  in  the  houses  of  the  Surgeon,  of 
Sallust,  and  of  Epidius  Rufus.  In  the  large  house  of  Pansa 
(Fig.  177),  we  find  both  a  peristyle  and  a  garden,  the  latter 
being  at  the  rear  of  the  peristyle  ;  and  in  many  houses  a  small 
garden  was  placed  wherever  available  space  could  be  found. 

The  peristyle  is  a  garden  enclosed  by  a  colonnade,  or  having 
a  colonnade  on  two  or  three  sides.  When  this  was  higher  on 
the  north  side  than  on  the  other  three,  as  in  the  house  of  the 
Silver  Wedding,  the  peristyle  was  called  Rhodian.     In  the  Tufa 


w 
X 
H 

^    Q^ 
O    < 

^    Oi 
O    UJ 

y; 

o 
o 
_1 


Q 

< 

ui   ^ 

cA)    O 
D    H 

O 
X 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE  261 

Period  the  colonnade  was  frequently  in  two  stories  all  four 
sides  or  on  the  front  alone.  Fragments  of  columns  l  onging 
to  the  second  story  have  been  found  in  many  houses,  but  in 
only  one  instance,  that  of  the  house  of  the  Centenary,  are  they 
of  such  a  character  as  to  enable  us  to  make  an  accurate  restora- 
tion ;  here  the  double  series  of  columns  extended  only  across 
the  front. 

A  separate  entrance,  posticum  (Fig.  115),  usually  connected 
the  peristyle  with  a  side  street.     At  the  rear  there  often  a 

broad,  deep  recess,  excdm,  corresponding  with  the  tablinum. 
The  location  of  the  other  rooms  in  this  part  of  the  house  is 
determined  by  so  many  conditions,  and  manifests  so  great  a 
diversity  that  it  may  be  spoken  of  more  conveniently  in  con- 
nection with  their  use. 

VII.    Sleeping  Rooms 

The  small,  high  rooms  about  the  atrium  were  in  the  earlier 
times  used  as  bedrooms ;  and  such  they  remained  in  some 
houses,  as  that  of  the  Faun,  down  to  the  destruction  of  the 
city. 

The  sleeping  rooms  about  the  peristyle  were  much  lower,  and 
the  front  opened  by  means  of  a  broad  door  in  its  whole,  or 
almost  its  whole,  width  upon  the  colonnade.  These  rooms 
could  frequently  be  entered  also  through  a  small  side  door 
from  a  dining  room,  or  a  narrow  recess  opening  on  the  peristyle 
(Fig.  146,  x).  The  design  of  the  arrangement  is  obvious.  In 
summer  the  inconvenient  large  door  could  be  left  open  day  and 
night,  a  curtain  being  stretched  across  the  space  ;  in  winter  it 
would  be  opened  only  for  airing  and  cleaning,  the  small  door 
being  used  at  other  times. 

The  place  for  the  bed  was  sometimes  indicated  in  the  plan 
of  the  room.  In  a  bedroom  of  the  house  of  the  Centaur,  of 
which  an  end  view  is  given  in  Fig.  122,  a  narrow  alcove  was 
made  for  the  bed  at  the  left  side  ;  the  floor  of  the  alcove  is 
slightly  raised,  and  the  ceiling,  as  often,  is  in  the  form  of  a 
vault,  while  the  ceiling  of  the  room  is  higher  and  only  slightly 
arched.     A  similar  arrangement  is  found  in  several  other  rooms 


262 


POMPEII 


decorated  in  the  first  style.     In  several  houses,  as  in  the  house 
of  Apollo,  there  is  a  sleeping  room  with  alcoves  for  two  beds. 

In  bedrooms  with  a  mosaic  floor  the  place  for  the  bed  is 
ordinarily  white,  being  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  room  by 
a  stripe  suggestive  of  a  threshold.  A  similar  division  is  often 
indicated  in  the  wall  decoration,  particularly  that  of  the  second 
style ;  the  part  designated  for  the  bed  is  set  off  by  pilasters  on 
the  end  walls,  and  differently  treated  both  in  respect  to  the 
decorative  design  and  in  the  arrangement  of  colors. 


Fig.  122.— End  of  a  bedroom  in  the  house  of  the  Centaur,  decorated  in  the  first  style. 
At  the  left,  alcove  for  the  bed ;  above,  two  windows. 


VIII.    Dining  Rooms 

As  long  as  it  was  customary  to  sit  at  meals  any  fair-sized 
apartment  could  be  used  as  a  dining  room.  When  the  early 
Italic  house  was  extended  by  the  addition  of  a  peristyle,  and  the 
Greek  custom  of  reclining  at  table  was  introduced,  it  became 
necessary  to  provide  a  special  apartment,  and  the  Greek  name 
for  such  a  room  with  the  three  couches,  lnclinin))i,  came  into 
use.     For  convenience  in  serving,  the  length  of  a  dining  room, 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


26' 


A 

B 

c 

)■= 

c 

■^H 

■1              ■ 

according  to  Vitruvius,  should  be  twice  the  width.  At  Pom- 
peii, however,  the  dimensions  are  less  generous ;  with  an  av- 
erage width  of  12  or  13  feet  the  length  rarely  exceeds  20 
feet.  In  many  cases  one  end  of  the  room  opened  on  the 
peristyle,  but  could  be  closed  by  means  of  broad  doors  or 
shutters. 

The  plan  of  a  typical  dining  room  is  given  in  Fig.  123.  The 
couch  at  the  right  of  the  table  was  called  the  upper  couch  ;  that 
at  the  left,  the  lower ;  and  that  between, 
the  middle  couch.  With  few  exceptions 
each  couch  was  made  to  accommodate 
three  persons ;  the  diner  rested  on  his 
left  arm  on  a  cushion  at  the  side  nearer 
the  table,  and  stretched  his  feet  out  toward 
the  right.     Hence,  the  first  on  the  upper  !     ?     '     '     ?'" 

couch  had  what  was  called  'the  highest   ^ig.  i23.-Pia«  of  a  dining 

,  ,       r-r^,  .  ,  ^    ,.  room  with  three  couclies. 

place.       i  he  one  next  was  said  to  reclme    ,   ,, 

'  _  A.    Upper  couch,  leci/is  su/iiiiius. 

'below'  him,  because  lying  on  the  side  b.  M\dd\e  couch,  iec^ns  med/us. 
toward  which  the  first  person  extended  his    ^  ^7"  '""'^'  ^''""  "'""■ 

^  u.   i.3.h\e,  iiieiisa. 

feet ;  the  man  at  the  outer  end  of  the  lower 

couch  was  said  to  be  'at  the  foot,'  iniits.  When  in  the  Gospel 
of  John  we  read  of  a  disciple  "  lying  on  Jesus'  breast,"  the  mean- 
ing is  easily  explained  by  reference  to  Roman  usage  ;  John  was 
reclining  in  the  place  next  below  the  Master.  This  arrange- 
ment makes  clear  to  us  the  reason  why  the  couches  w^ere  so 
placed  that  the  lower  one  projected  further  beyond  the  table 
than  the  upper  one ;  the  feet  of  those  on  the  lower  couch  were 
extended  toward  the  end  furthest  from  the  table. 

To  the  couches  grouped  in  the  manner  indicated  the  same 
name  was  applied  as  to  the  dining  room,  triclinium.  Of  those 
in  the  dining  rooms  only  scanty  remains  are  found.  In  summer 
the  Pompeians,  as  the  Italians  of  to-day,  were  fond  of  dining  in 
the  open  air.  In  order  to  save  the  trouble  of  moving  heavy 
furniture  couches  of  masonry  were  not  infrequently  constructed 
in  the  garden,  and  have  been  preserved ;  such  a  triclinium  is 
that  in  the  garden  of  the  tannery  (p.  398).  The  arrangement 
is  in  most  cases  precisely  that  indicated  in  Fig.  123,  the  outer 
end  of  the   lower  couch  projecting  beyond  the  corresponding 


\0 


264  POMPEII 

end  of  the  upper  one.  In  the  middle  stands  the  base  of  the 
table,  also  of  masonry ;  the  top  is  rarely  preserved.  Near  by  is 
a  little  altar  for  the  offerings  made  in  connection  with  each 
meal.  The  appearance  of  such  a  triclinium  may  be  inferred 
from  that  of  the  triclinium  funebre  shown  in  Fig.  245,  which 
has  a  square  table  and  round  altar. 

In  many  gardens  we  find  about  the  triclinium  the  remains  of 

four  or  six  columns.     These  supported  a  frame  of  timber  or 

lattice-work,  upon  which  vines  were  trained, 

E^^'"^^^     making  a  shady  bower,  as  in  the  garden  of 
JB  ^1     ^^^  tavern  in  the  first  Region,  referred  to 

^^    ^^J     below  (p.  404). 

' — ' — ' — ^ — ' — i"  The  couches  were  ordinarily  not  provided 

Fig.  124.  — Plan  of  a  din-  with  backs,  but  the  outer  ends  of  the  upper 

ine  room  wiili  an  ante-  i    ,  ,  ,_•  i       i  r 

,  .  .  and  lower  couches  sometmies  had  a  frame 

room     conlammg     an 

altar  for  libations.         to  hold  the  cushious,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  123 

A.  Room  for  the  table  and   and  showu   more  clearly  in  our  restoration, 

couches 

B.  Anteroom  with  altar.        Fig.  1 88.     lu  the  dmuig  rooms  small  mov- 

able altars  must  have  been  used  for  the  offer- 
ings, such  as  those  of  terra  cotta  or  bronze  not  infrequently  met 
with  in  the  course  of  excavation.  A  fixed  altar  has  been  found 
in  only  one  instance,  in  a  small  dining  room  in  the  eighth  Region 
(VIII.  v-vi.  i6).  Here,  as  our  plan  (Fig.  124)  shows,  the  front 
of  the  apartment  is  set  off  as  an  anteroom,  and  in  this  was  placed 
an  altar  of  tufa. 

In  accordance  with  an  ancient  custom  the  children,  even  those 
of  the  imperial  family,  sat  on  low. stools  at  a  table  of  their  own 
on  the  open  side  of  the  large  table.  In  an  open-air  triclinium  in 
the  ninth  Region  (IX.  v.  1 1 )  the  children's  seat  is  preserved,  a 
low  bench  of  masonry  about  forty  inches  long  connected  with  the 
projecting  arm  of  the  lower  couch  (Plate  VII.). 

The  inner  part  of  the  dining  room,  designed  for  the  table  and 
couches,  was  often  distinguished  from  the  free  space  in  the 
same  way  that  the  place  for  the  bed  was  indicated  in  bedrooms, 
sometimes  by  a  difference  in  the  design  of  the  mosaic  floor,  more 
frequently  by  the  division  of  the  wall  decoration  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  ceiling.  In  the  third  and  fourth  decorative  styles 
the  division  is  less  plainly  marked  than  in  the  second  ;  but  often 


THE   POMPEIAN   HOUSE  265 

the  side  walls  back  of  the  couches  and  the  inner  end  of  the 
room  have  each  a  single  large  panel  with  a  small  panel  at  the 
right  and  left,  while  on  each  side  wall  in  front  are  only  two 
panels,  of  the  same  size. 

In  one  respect  the  ordinary  dining  room  was  far  from  con- 
venient ;  those  who  had  the  inner  places  could  not  leave  the 
table  or  return  to  it  in  the  course  of  a  meal  without  disturbing 
one  or  more  of  those  reclining  nearer  the  outside.  Large  rooms, 
in  which  an  open  space  was  left  between  the  couches  and  the 
wall,  or  in  which  several  tables  with  their  sets  of  couches 
could  be  placed,  were  unknown  in  pre-Roman  Pompeii.  In 
the  time  of  the  Empire  a  few  of  these  large  dining  rooms 
were  built  in  older  houses.  There  is  one  measuring  about 
25  by  33  feet  in  the  house  of  Pansa ;  another,  of  which  the 
dimensions  are  23  by  30  feet,  in  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux; 
and  a  third,  36  feet  long,  in  the  house  of  the  Citharist. 

In  a  number  of  houses  we  find  a  large,  fine  apartment  — 
designated  by  the  Greek  word  oecns  —  which  seems'  often  to 
have  been  used  for  a  dining  room,  especially  on  notable  occa- 
sions. A  particularly  elegant  form  was  the  Corinthian  oecus, 
which  had  a  row  of  columns  about  the  sides  a  short  distance 
from  the  walls,  the  room  being  thus  divided  into  a  main  part 
with  a  vaulted  ceiling  and  a  corridor  with  a  flat  ceiling.  The 
couches  would  be  placed  in  the  main  part ;  the  guests  could 
pass  to  their  places  along  the  corridor,  behind  the  columns. 
The  remains  of  such  an  oecus  may  be  seen  in  the  houses  of 
Meleager  and  of  the  Labyrinth. 

A  specially  interesting  example  —  unfortunately  not  yet  wholly 
excavated  —  is  in  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding.  In  this 
case  only  the  inner  part,  designed  for  the  couches,  is  set  off 
by  columns.  We  may  assume  that  there  was  a  vaulted  ceiling 
over  the  middle,  resting  on  the  entablature  of  the  columns  ;  that 
the  ceiling  of  the  corridor  between  the  columns  and  the  wall 
was  flat,  and  of  the  same  height  as  the  entablature ;  and  that 
the  front  part  of  the  room  had  a  flat  or  slightly  arched  ceiling 
of  the  same  height  as  the  crown  of  the  vault  over  the  middle. 

In  the  more  pretentious  Roman  houses  there  was  sometimes 
a  dining  room  for  each  season  of  the  year;  when  Trimalchio  in 


266  POMPEII 

Petronius's  novel  boasts  that  he  has  four  dining  rooms,  we  are 
to  understand  that  he  had  one  each  for  winter,  summer,  autumn, 
and  spring.  In  the  case  of  the  Pompeian  houses  we  are  war- 
ranted in  assuming  that  dining  rooms  opening  toward  the  south 
were  for  winter  use,  those  toward  the  north  for  use  in  summer. 
Other  airy  apartments,  with  a  large  window  in  addition  to  the 
wide  door,  may  well  have  been  intended  for  summer  triclinia. 
Further  than  this  it  is  hardly  possible  to  classify  Pompeian  din- 
ing rooms  according  to  the  seasons. 

IX.    The  Kitchen,  the  Bath,  and  the  Storerooms 

In  the  Pompeian  house  the  kitchen  had  no  fixed  location.  It 
was  generally  a  small  room,  and  was  placed  wherever  it  would 
least  interfere  with  the  arrangement  of  the  rest  of  the  house. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  kitchen  was  the  hearth.  This 
was  built  of  masonry,  against  one  of  the  walls.  It  was  oblong, 
and  the  fire  was  made  on  the  top.  The  cooking  utensils  some- 
times rested  on  rectangular  projections  of  masonry,  as  in  the 
kitchen  of  the  house  of  Pansa,  sometimes  on  small  iron  tripods, 
as  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii  (Fig.  125).  The  hearth  of  the  lat- 
ter house  was  found  undisturbed,  with  a  vessel  in  place  ready  to 
be  heated.  In  one  house  the  place  of  an  iron  tripod  was  taken 
by  three  pointed  ends  of  amphorae  set  upright  on  the  hearth. 
Underneath  there  was  often  a  hollow  place,  like  that  shown  in 
our  illustration,  in  which  fuel  was  kept,  as  in  similar  openings 
under  the  hearths  of  Campanian  kitchens  to-day. 

Sometimes  we  find  near  the  hearth  a  bake  oven,  not  large 
enough  to  have  been  used  for  bread,  and  evidently  intended  for 
pastry ;  bread  must  ordinarily  have  been  obtained  from  the 
bakers.  In  one  of  the  cellars  of  the  house  of  the  Centenary 
there  is  a  larger  oven,  which  may  have  been  used  to  bake  coarse 
bread  for  the  slaves ;  the  heat  was  utilized  in  warming  a  bath 
above. 

Over  the  hearth  was  a  small  window  to  carry  off  the  smoke. 
As  the  kitchen  was  ordinarily  high  there  may  have  been  a  hole 
in  the  roof  also,  but  the  upper  parts  have  been  destroyed,  and 
their  arrangement  cannot  be  determined.     From  the  small  size 


THE   POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


267 


of  the  kitchens  and  of  the  hearths  in  even  the  largest  and  finest 
houses,  we  may  infer  that  the  kixury  of  the  table  prevalent  in  the 
Early  Empire  had  made  only  slight  progress  at  Pompeii. 

Close  by  the  kitchen,  frequently  forming  a  part  of  it  and  next 
to  the  hearth,  was  the  closet ;  a  separate  closet  of  good  size  is 
found  in  the  houses  of  the  Faun  and  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

In  many  large  houses  there  is  a  bath,  generally  too  small  to 
have  been  used  by  more  than  one  person  at  a  time.  These 
baths  ordinarily  include  only  a  tepidarium  and  a  caldarium,  but 
occasionally  there  is  an  apodyterium,  less  frequently  still  a  small 


Fig.  125.  —  Hearth  of  the  kitchen  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 
The  arched  place  underneath  is  for  the  storage  of  fuel. 


frigidarium ;  in  most  cases  a  basin  in  the  apodyterium  or  tepida- 
rium must  have  been  used  for  the  cold  bath.  The  heating  ar- 
rangements are  similar  to  those  found  in  the  public  baths,  and 
more  or  less  complete  according  to  the  period  in  which  the  bath 
was  fitted  up,  and  the  taste  of  the  proprietor  ;  a  progressive  refine- 
ment in  the  appointments  of  the  private  baths  can  be  traced  simi- 
lar to  that  which  we  have  already  noted  in  the  case  of  the  Stabian 
Baths.  The  close  relation  generally  existing  between  the  bath- 
rooms and  the  kitchen  is  well  illustrated  in  the  houses  of  the 
Faun  and  of  the  Silver  Wedding. 

In  connection  with  this  group  of  rooms  we  may  mention  the 


268  POMPEII 

storerooms,  which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  houses  and 
may  be  identified  by  the  traces  of  the  shelves  that  were  fastened 
to  the  walls. 

Comparatively  few  houses  were  provided  with  cellars.  In  the 
house  of  the  Centenary,  however,  there  are  two.  One,  entered 
from  the  atrium  by  a  stairway,  extends  under  the  tablinum  and 
the  front  colonnade  of  the  peristyle  ;  the  other  is  accessible  from 
a  side  atrium  and  is  divided  into  several  rooms,  in  one  of  which 
is  the  oven  mentioned  above.  The  cellar  belonging  to  the  house 
of  Caecilius  Jucundus  is  under  the  garden;  that  of  the  villa  of 
Diomedes  will  be  described  later. 

X.    The  Shrine  of  the  Household  Gods 

In  ancient  Italy  each  household  worshipped  its  guardian 
spirits  and  tutelary  divinities,  which  formed  a  triple  group,  the 
Lares,  the  Penates,  and  the  Genius.  In  Pompeii  the  remains 
associated  with  domestic  worship  are  numerous  and  important. 

Many  Pompeians  painted  representations  of  the  household 
gods  upon  an  inner  wall,  often  upon  a  wall  of  the  kitchen,  near 
the  hearth.  There  was  usually  a  painted  altar  underneath,  with 
a  serpent  on  either  side  coming  to  partake  of  the  offerings. 

In  a  large  number  of  houses  a  small  niche  was  made  in  the 
wall,  in  which  were  placed  little  images  of  the  gods,  the  Lares 
and  the  Genius  being  also  painted  on  the  back  of  the  cavity  or 
on  the  wall  at  the  sides  or  below.  Such  a  niche  may  be  seen 
in  a  corner  of  the  kitchen  in  the  house  of  Apollo  (Fig.  126);  the 
pictures  of  the  gods  are  almost  obliterated,  but  that  of  the  ser- 
pent—  in  this  case  there  is  but  one  —  and  of  the  altar  can  be 
clearly  seen.  In  front  is  a  small  altar  of  masonry  ;  the  ferns 
and  grasses  with  which  the  floor  is  carpeted  make  this  kitchen 
in  summer  an  attractive  nook.  Sometimes  the  niches  were 
ornamented  with  diminutive  half-columns  or  pilasters  at  the 
sides  and  a  pediment  above. 

Frequently  a  more  elaborate  shrine  was  provided,  a  diminutive 
temple  raised  on  a  foundation,  placed  against  a  wall  of  the  atrium 
or  of  the  garden.  An  example  is  the  one  at  the  rear  of  the  peri- 
style in  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet  (Fig.  153). 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


269 


In  rare  instances  a  small,  separate  chapel  was  devoted  to  the 
domestic  worship,  as  in  the  house  of  the  Centenary.  In  a  house 
of  the  ninth  Region  (IX.  viii.  7)  there  is  such  a  chapel  in  the 
garden,  a  niche  for  the  images  being  placed  in  the  wall. 

The  Lares  are  the  guardian  spirits  of  the  household.  Origi- 
nally but  one  was 
worshipped  in  each 
house  ;  they  began  to 
be  honored  in  plural- 
ity after  the  time  of 
Cicero,  and  at  Pom- 
peii we  invariably  find 
them  in  pairs.  They 
are  represented  as 
youths  clad  in  a  short 
tunic  confined  by  a 
girdle  (Fig.  127), 
stepping  lightly  or 
dancing,  with  one 
hand  high  uplifted  in 
which  a  drinking 
horn,  rJiyton,  is  seen  ; 
from  the  end  of  the 
horn  a  jet  of  wine 
spurts  in  a  graceful 
curve,  falling  into  a 
small  pail,  sitiila,  or 
into  a  libation  saucer, 
patera,  held  in  the 
other  hand. 

Simple  offerings 
were  made  to  these 
beneficent    spirits,  — 

fruits,  sacrificial  cakes,  garlands,  and  incense,  —  and  at  every 
meal  a  portion  was  set  aside  for  them  in  little  dishes.  When  a 
sacrifice  was  offered  to  the  Lares,  the  victim  was  a  pig. 

With  the  worship  of  the  Lares  was  associated  that  of  the 
Genius,  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  master  of  the  house.     He  is 


Fig.  126. —  Niche  for  the  images  of  the  household  gods, 

in  a  corner  of  the  kitchen  in' the  house  of  Apollo. 
Underneath,  a  painted  serpent  represented  as  about  to 

take   offerings  from   a   round  altar.     In   front  is   a 

square  altar  for  the  domestic  worship. 


2  70  POMPEII 

represented  as  a  standing  figure,  the  face  being  a  portrait  of  the 
master.  The  toga  is  drawn  over  his  head,  after  the  manner  of 
one  sacrificing ;  in  the  left  hand  there  is  usually  a  cornucopia, 
sometimes  a  box  of  incense,  acerra  ;  with  the  right  hand  he  pours 
a  drink  offering  from  a  patera. 

Very  rarely  we  find  a  representation  of  the  Genius  of  the  mis- 
tress of  the  house.  In  one  painting  she  appears  with  the 
attributes  of  Juno  ;  the  Genius  of  a  woman  was  often  called 
Juno,  as  in  the  inscription  on  the  bust  stone  of  Tyche,  the  slave 
of  Julia  Augusta  (p.  418).  As  a  man  might  swear  in  the  name 
of  his  Genius,  so  a  w^oman's  oath  might  be  '  By  my  Juno.' 

The  Lares  and  the  Genius  are  often  found  together  both  in 
the  hearth  paintings,  and  in  the  groups  of  little  bronze  images 
frequently  placed  in  the  shrines.  They  are  associated  also  in 
an  inscription  on  the  shrine  in  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus  :  Goiio 
M\_arci'\  n\_ost7'i\  et  Laribus  duo  Diadiimeni  /ibcrti,  —  'To  the 
Genius  of  our  Marcus  and  the  Lares;  (dedicated  by)  his  two 
freedmen  with  the  name  of  Diadumenus.'  Marcus  was  the  first 
name  of  the  head  of  the  household. 

In  a  few  cases  the  Genius  of  the  emperor  seems  to  have  been 
revered  at  a  house  shrine.  Horace  (Od.  IV.  v.  34)  speaks  dis- 
tinctly of  the  worship  of  the  tutelary  divinity  of  Augustus  in 
connection  with  that  of  the  Lares,  —  et  Laribits  tiiiivi  Miscet 
nnnicii.  On  the  rear  wall  of  a  little  chapel  in  a  garden  is  a 
painted  altar  at  the  right  of  which  stands  Jupiter,  at  the  left  a 
Genius,  each  pouring  a  libation.  We  can  scarcely  believe  that 
the  Genius  of  an  ordinary  man  would  thus  be  placed  as  it  were 
on  an  equality  with  the  ruler  of  heaven ;  more  likely  the  Genius 
of  an  emperor  is  represented,  perhaps  that  of  Claudius.  The 
face  is  not  unlike  the  face  of  Claudius,  and  the  painting  is  on  a 
wall  decorated  in  the  third  style  (Ins.  VII.  xi.  4). 

In  another  house  (IX.  viii.  13)  two  Genii  are  painted,  and 
under  one  of  them  is  scratched  in  large  letters  EX  SC,  un- 
doubtedly for  ex  soiatus  consulto,  —  '  in  accordance  with  a  decree 
of  the  Senate.'  We  are  probably  safe  in  assuming  that  the 
decree  referred  to  is  that  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  by  which  the 
worship  of  the  Lares  was  regulated  (Dio  Cass.  LI.  xix.  7);  if  so, 
the  figure  is  intended  to  represent  the  Genius  of  that  emperor. 


Fig.  127.  —  Shrine  in  the  house  of  the  \'ettii. 
In  the  middle  the  CJenius,  with  libation  saucer  and  box  of  incense;   at  the  sides,  the  two 
Lares,  each  with  a  drinking  horn  and  pail ;   below,  a  crested  serpent  about  to  partake 
of  the  offerings. 


271 


2  72  POMPEII 

The  face  of  the  Genius  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii  (Fig.  127) 
bears  a  decided  resemblance  to  that  of  Nero.  Here  the  shrine 
was  placed  in  the  rear  wall  of  the  smaller  atrium.  It  consists 
of  a  broad,  shallow  niche,  the  front  of  which  is  elaborately 
ornamented  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  little  temple,  while  on 
the  back  are  painted  the  household  divinities.  The  Genius 
stands  with  veiled  head  between  the  two  Lares,  holding  in  his 
left  hand  a  box  of  incense  and  pouring  a  libation  with  the  right. 
In  the  original  painting  the  features  were  unusually  distinct. 

The  Penates  were  the  protecting  divinities  of  the  provisions 
or  stores,  pciuis,  and  the  storerooms  of  the  house ;  under  this 
name  were  included  various  gods  to  whom  the  master  and  the 
household  offered  special  worship.  At  Pompeii  the  Penates,  as 
the  Lares  and  the  Genius,  appear  in  paintings,  and  are  also  rep- 
resented by  bronze  images  placed  in  the  shrines.  In  the  shrine 
of  the  house  of  Lucretius  were  diminutive  bronze  figures  of  the 
Genius  and  of  Jupiter,  Hercules,  Fortuna,  and  another  divinity 
that  has  not  been  identified.  Statuettes  of  Apollo,  Aesculapius, 
Hercules,  and  Mercury  were  found,  together  with  those  of  the 
two  Lares,  in  another  house  ;  in  a  third,  Fortuna  alone  with  the 
Lares. 

Jupiter  and  Fortuna  are  frequently  met  with  in  shrine  paint- 
ings, as  well  as  Venus  Pompeiana  (Fig.  4),  Hercules,  Mars,  and 
Vulcan  as  a  personification  of  the  hearth  fire  ;  Vesta,  the  patron 
goddess  of  bakers,  usually  appears  in  the  hearth  paintings  of 
bake  shops. 

Underneath  the  representations  of  the  Lares  and  Penates 
ordinarily  are  painted  two  serpents,  one  on  either  side  of  an 
altar,  which  they  are  approaching  in  order  to  partake  of  the 
offerings ;  these  consist  of  fruits,  in  the  midst  of  which  an  egg 
or  a  pine  cone  can  usually  be  distinguished.  As  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  Empire  the  significance  of  the  serpent  in  the 
Roman  worship  had  ceased  to  be  clearly  understood  ;  Virgil 
represents  Aeneas  as  in  doubt  whether  the  serpent  which  came 
out  from  the  tomb  of  Anchises  was  the  attendant  of  his  father 
or  the  Genius  of  the  place  (Aen.  V.  95). 

In  the  Pompeian  paintings,  when  a  pair  of  serpents  occurs, 
one  may  usually  be  recognized  as  a  male  by  the  prominent 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE  273 

crest.  They  were  undoubtedly  looked  upon  as  personifications 
of  the  Genii  of  the  master  and  mistress  of  the  house.  When 
a  single  crested  serpent  appears,  as  in  the  shrine  paintings  of 
both  the  house  of  the  Vettii  (Fig.  127)  and  the  house  of  Apollo 
(Fig.  126),  we  are  to  understand  that  the  head  of  the  household 
was  unmarried. 


XI.    Second  Story  Rooms 

With  few  exceptions  the  houses  of  pre-Roman  Pompeii  were 
built  in  only  one  story ;  where  the  peristyle  was  in  two  stories, 
there  must  have  been  rooms  opening  upon  the  upper  colonnade. 
In  Roman  times,  as  the  population  of  the  city  increased  and 
more  space  was  needed,  it  became  a  common  practice  to  make 
the  rooms  about  the  atrium  lower  and  build  chambers  over 
them.  A  complete  second  story  was  rare ;  small  rooms  were 
added  here  and  there,  frequently  at  different  levels  and  reached 
by  different  .stairways.  Sometimes  the  second  story  on  the 
front  side  projected  a  few  feet  over  the  street ;  an  example  may 
be  seen  in  a  house  in  the  seventh  Region  (casa  del  Balcone 
Pensile),  the  front  of  which,  with  the  part  projecting  over  the 
sidewalk,  has  been  carefully  rebuilt  by  replacing  the  charred 
remains  of  the  ancient  beams  with  new  timbers. 

Houses  with  three  stories  were  quite  exceptional,  and  the 
rooms  of  the  third  floor  must  have  been  unimportant.  Along 
the  steep  slope  of  the  hill,  on  the  west  and  southwest  sides  of 
the  city,  a  number  of  houses  are  found  that  present  the  appear- 
ance of  several  stories ;  they  are  not  properly  classed  with  those 
just  mentioned,  however,  for  the  reason  that  the  .floors  are  on 
terraces,  the  highest  at  the  level  of  the  street,  the  others  lower 
down  and  further  back,  being  adjusted  to  the  descent  of  the 
ground. 

From  the  time  of  Plautus,  second  story  rooms  were  desig- 
nated as  '  dining  rooms,'  cenacula.  Varro  says  that  after  it 
became  customary  to  dine  upstairs,  all  upper  rooms  were  called 
cenacula.  This  explanation  is  not  altogether  satisfactory,  be- 
cause other  literary  evidence  for  the  prevalence  of  such  a 
custom  is  lacking.     Perhaps  in  earl}'  times,  when,  on  account 


274 


POMPEII 


of  the  introduction  of  the  compluvium  and  impluvium,  the 
atrium  ceased  to  be  convenient  and  comfortable  for  the  serving 
of  meals,  a  dining  room  was  frequently  constructed  on  an  upper 
fioor,  and,  being  the  principal  second  story  apartment,  gave  its 
name  to  the  rest.  In  some  places  the  ancient  custom  may  still 
have  lingered  in  the  time  of  the  Early  Empire. 

The  upper  parts  of  the  Pompeian  houses  in  most  cases  have 


Fig.  128. 


Interior  of  a  liouse  with  a  second  story  dining  room  opening  on  tiie  atrium, 
restored. 


been  completely  destroyed  ;  in  a  few,  however,  there  are  traces 
of  a  second  story  apartment  that  was  probably  used  as  a  dining 
room. 

One  of  these  houses  is  in  Insula  xv  of  Region  VII,  near  the 
temple  of  Apollo.  It  is  painted  in  the  second  style,  and  dates 
apparently  from  the  end  of  the  Republic.  At  the  rear  of  the 
atrium  are  two  rooms  and  a  passageway  leading  to  the  back  of 
the  house.     Over  these  was  a  single  large  apartment,  closed  at 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


275 


the  sides  and  rear,  but  opening  on  the  atrium  in  its  entire 
length;  along  the  front,  as  seen  in  our  restoration  (Fig.  128), 
ran  a  balustrade  connecting  the  pilasters  —  ornamented  with 
half-columns  —  which  supported  the  roof. 

In  a  corner  of  the  atrium  at  the  rear  a  narrow  stairway  led 
to  the  second  floor.  At  the  right,  as  our  section  shows  (Fig. 
129),  was  a  narrow  gallery  resting  on  brackets,  which  connected 
the  upper  room  at  the  rear  with  one  in  the  front  of  the  house. 

The  large  upper  room  was  so  well  fitted  for  a  dining  room, 
especially  in  summer,  that  we  can  hardly  resist  the  conclusion 
that  it  was  designed  for  this  purpose.  There  is  no  trace  of  a 
kitchen  on  the  ground  floor ;  and  for  greater  convenience  this 


Wc-^C 


o  <^ ,  i- 


n|>«      >«.>/     a 


Fig.  129. —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  with  a  second  story  dining  room. 
At  the  right,  vestibule,  door,  and  fauces,  with  front  room  above;  then  the  atrium,  with  the 
gallery  connecting  the  front  room  with  the  dining  room ;  lastly,  the  apartments  at  the 
rear  of  the  house.     In  this  house  there  was  no  peristyle. 


also  was  probably  placed  in  the  second  story,  behind  the  dining 
room. 

In  the  fifth  Region  there  was  a  small  dwelling,  which  after- 
wards became  a  part  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding ;  the 
arrangement  of  the  two  stories  at  the  rear  of  the  atrium  was 
similar  to  that  just  described,  except  that  columns  were  used 
in  place  of  the  pilasters,  and  there  was  only  the  one  upper 
room  in  the  back  part  of  the  house.  In  such  cases  as  this  'din- 
ing room '  and  '  upper  story  '  might  easily  have  come  to  be  used 
as  synonymous  terms. 

Where  there  was  a  large  upper  room  at  the  rear  of  the 
atrium,  no  place  was  left  for  the  high  tablinum  ;  in  a  house  in 
the  seventh  Region  (casa  dell'  Amore  Punito,  VII.  ii.  23)  the 


276 


POMPEII 


cenaculum  was  in  front.  On  the  front  wall  of  the  atrium  one 
may  still  see  part  of  the  carefully  hewn  stones  on  which  the 
columns  of  the  second  story  rested,  and  fragments  of  these 
columns  were  found  on  the  floor  below. 

XII.    The  Shops 


/Jfo 


^Y^^ 


The  outer  parts  of  the  houses  fronting  on  the  principal  thor- 
oughfares were  utilized  as  shops.  On  the  more  retired  side 
streets  there  were  fewer  shops,  and  we  often  find  a  facade  of 
masonry  unbroken  except  for  the  front  door  and  an  occasional 
window. 

The  shop  fronts  were  open  to  the  street.  The  counter,  fre- 
quently of  masonry,  has  in  most  cases  the  shape  indicated  on 
our  plan  (Fig.  130,  2),  being  so  arranged  that  customers  could 
make  their  purchases,  if  they  wished,  without  going  inside  the 

shop.  Large  jars  were  often  set 
in  it,  to  serve  as  receptacles  for 
the  wares  and  edibles  exposed  for 
sale.  Sometimes  on  the  end  next 
to  the  wall  there  are  little  steps, 
on  which,  as  seen  in  our  restora- 
tion (Fig.  131),  measuring  cups 
and  other  small  vessels  were 
placed.  At  the  inner  end  we 
see  now  and  then  a  depression 
(3)  over  which  a  vessel  could  be 
heated,  a  fire  being  kindled  un- 
derneath as  on  a  hearth.  In  the 
wineshops  a  separate  hearth  is 
sometimes  found,  and  occasionally  a  leaden  vessel  for  heating 
water. 

In  the  houses  of  the  Tufa  Period  the  shops,  as  the  front 
doors  and  the  rooms  about  the  atrium,  were  relatively  high. 
Those  of  the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  measured  nearly  16 
feet;  those  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  19  feet;  the  appearance 
of  the  latter  may  be  suggested  by  our  restoration  (Fig.  139). 
The  height  was  divided  by  an  upper  ?^ooy,  pergnla,  10  or  12  feet 


Fig.  130.  —  Plan  of  a  Pompeian  shop. 

1.  Entrance.         3.    Place  for  a  fire. 

2.  Counter.  4.    Stairway  to  upper  floor. 

5,  5.    Back  rooms. 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 


277 


above  the  ground,  along  the  open  front  of  which  was  a  balus- 
trade ;  the  stairs  leading  to  it  were  inside  the  shop.  On  such 
a  pergula  Apelles,  according  to  Pliny  (N.  H.  xxxv.  84),  was 
accustomed  to  display  his  paintings  ;  and  in  the  Digest  refer- 
ence is  more  than  once  made  to  cases  in  which  a  person  passing 
along  the  street  was  injured  by  an  object  falling  upon  him  from 
the  second   story  of  a  shop.     '  Shops  with  their  upper  floors  ' 


Fig.  131. — A  shop  for  the  sale  of  edibles,  restored. 


are  advertised  for  rent  in  one  of  the  painted  inscriptions  found 
at  Pompeii  (p.  489). 

In  Roman  times  the  shops,  as  the  inner  rooms  of  the  house, 
were  built  lower,  and  over  them  small  closed  rooms  were  made, 
which  were  called  by  the  same  name  as  the  open  floor,  pergula. 
These  rooms  were  frequently  accessible  from  the  street  by  a 
stairway,  and  in  such  cases  could  be  rented  separately.  In 
colloquial  language,  a  man  whose  early  life  had  been  passed 
amid  unfavorable  surroundings  was  said  to  have  been  '  born  in 
a  room  over  a  shop,'  —  natiis  in  pergula. 


2  78  POMPEII 

Shops  were  entered  by  means  of  small  doors ;  the  front  was 
closed  with  shutters.  These  consisted  of  overlapping  boards 
set  upright  in  narrow  grooves  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  A 
separate  set  of  shutters  was  provided  for  the  open  pergula. 

XIII.    Walls,  Floors,  and  Windows 

The  walls  were  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  plaster  and 
painted ;  the  preparation  of  the  stucco,  the  processes  employed 
in  painting,  and  the  styles  of  decoration  are  reserved  for  dis- 
cussion in  a  later  chapter. 

The  floors  were  frequently  made  of  an  inexpensive  concrete, 
consisting  of  bits  of  lava  or  other  stone  pounded  down  into 
common  mortar.  A  much  better  floor  was  the  Signia  pave- 
ment, opus  Signinitm,  so  named  from  a  town  in  Latium.  This 
was  composed  of  very  small  fragments  of  brick  or  tile  pounded 
into  fine  mortar.  The  surface  was  carefully  finished,  and  was 
sometimes  ornamented  with  geometrical  or  other  patterns  traced 
in  outline  by  means  of  small  bits  of  white  stone. 

In  the  Tufa  Period  a  floor  was  often  made  by  fitting  together 
small  pieces  of  stone  or  marble,  and  bedding  them  well  in  mor- 
tar. The  colors  are  white  and  black,  —  slate  is  used  in  the  floor 
of  the  atrium  in  the  house  of  the  Faun  ;  sometimes  also  violet, 
yellow,  green,  and  red  appear  with  white  and  black.  Pave- 
ments of  square  or  lozenge-shaped  and  triangular  pieces  of 
colored  marble  and  slate,  like  that  in  the  cella  of  the  temple 
of  Apollo  (Fig.  28),  are  occasionally  found  in  houses.  In  the 
time  of  the  Early  Empire  floors  paved  with  larger  slabs  were 
not  uncommon. 

The  mosaics  of  the  Pompeian  floors  —  using  the  term  mosaic 
in  a  restricted  sense — may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  coarse 
and  fine.  In  the  former  the  cubes,  tesserae,  are  on  the  average 
a  little  less  than  half  an  inch  square.  The  patterns  are  some- 
times shown  in  black  on  a  white  surface,  sometimes  worked  in 
colors.  The  finer  variety,  in  which  the  pictures  appear,  is  not 
often  extended  over  a  whole  room,  but  is  usually  confined  to  a 
rectangular  section  in  the  middle,  coarse  mosaic  being  used  for 
the  rest  of  the  floor. 


THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE  279 

The  windows  at  the  front  of  the  house,  as  we  have  seen,  were 
ordinarily  few  and  small.  From  the  Tufa  Period,  however, 
large  windows  were  often  made  in  the  rooms  around  the  peri- 
style;  in  the  house  of  the  Faun  they  range  in  width  from  10  to 
23  feet,  and  are  so  low  that  one  sitting  inside  could  look  out 
through  them.  Upper  rooms,  also,  were  provided  with  windows 
of  good  size,  sometimes  measuring  2|  by  4  feet ;  but  the  re- 
mains are  scanty.  In  later  times  occasionally  a  lower  window 
opening  on  the  street  was  made  almost  as  large,  and  was  pro- 
tected by  an  iron  grating. 

Windows  were  ordinarily  closed  by  means  of  wooden  shut- 
ters Small  panes  of  glass  were  found  in  the  openings  of  the 
Baths  near  the  Forum  ;  had  the  Central  Baths  been  finished, 
glass  would  undoubtedly  have  been  used  for  the  windows  of 
the  caldarium.  The  window  of  the  tepidarium  in  the  villa  of 
Diomedes  was  closed  by  four  glass  panes  set  in  a  wooden  frame 
(P-  357);  in  the  other  houses  a  narrow  pane  is  occasionally  found, 
but  invariably  set  in  masonry. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 


THE  HOUSE   OE   THE  SURGEON 


VI 


The  house  of  the  Surgeon  (casa  del  Chirurgo)  is  the  oldest 
of  the  Pompeian  houses  that  retained  to  the  last,  with  but  slight 
modifications,  its  original  plan  and  appearance.     It  lies  at  the 

right  of  the  Strada  Consolare 
(VI.  i.  lo),  about  fifty  paces 
inside  the  Herculaneum  Gate. 
The  name  was  suggested  by 
the  discovery  of  several  surgi- 
cal instruments  in  one  of  the 
rooms. 

This  house  was  undoubtedly 
built  before  200  b.c.  The  fa- 
cade (Fig.  10)  and  the  walls  of 
the  atrium  are  of  large  hewn 
blocks  of  Sarno  limestone ; 
other  inner  walls  are  of  lime- 
stone framework  (p.  37).  The 
plan  conforms  to  the  simple 
Fig.  132.—  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Surgeon.   Italic  type,  before  the  addition 

I.    Fauces.  i6.    Colonnade. 

5.    Atrium. 

7,  Tablinum. 

8,  8.    Alae.  house. 

9,  10.    Dining  rooms.       19.    Room    with    window 

13.  Kitchen,  with  hearth  opening  on  the  (Fig.  1 32,  /)  has  already  dis- 
placed the  recess  for  the  bed 
opposite  the  front  door.  The 
measurements  of  the  rooms  are  according  to  the  Oscan  standard 
(p.  44),  the  atrium  being  about  30  by  35  Oscan  feet. 

We  pass  directly  from  the  street  through  the  fauces  (i)  into 
the    Tuscan    atrium   (5)   at   the    sides    of    which   are    sleeping 

280 


14.    Posticum 


of  the  peristyle  ;  yet  it  does  not 

18.    Stairway     to     rooms  i  j  j 

over  the  rear  of  the     illustratC  thc  oMcst  fomi  of  the 

native  house,  for  the  tablinum 


garden. 
20.    Garden. 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE    SURCIEON  281 

rooms  (6)  and  the  two  alae  (8).  Back  of  the  tablinum  is  a 
colonnade  (16)  openin<;-  on  the  garden  (20),  which  originally 
had  a  greater  length;  the  room  at  the  right  (19)  is  a  later 
addition,  as  also  the  smaller  room  at  the  other  end  (21).  The 
roof  of  the  colonnade  was  carried  by  square  limestone  pillars, 
one  of  which  has  been  preserved  in  its  original  form. 

The  oblong  room  at  the  right  of  the  tablinum  (10)  was  once 
square,  as  (9).  Both  were  well  adapted  for  winter  dining  rooms  ; 
in  summer,  meals  were  undoubtedly  served  in  the  tablinum. 
The  room  at  the  left  of  the  entrance  (2)  was  a  shop,  at  least 
in  later  times.  The  corresponding  room  on  the  other  side 
(6')  was  retained  for  domestic  use. 

The  shop  at  the  right  (3)  and  the  back  room  (4),  as  well  as 
the  kitchen  with  the  adjoining  rooms  at  the  rear,  used  as  store 
closets  and  quarters  for  slaves,  were  a  later  addition  ;  22  is  a 
light  court,  to  which  the  rain  water  was  conducted  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  roof.  Over  these  rooms  was  a  second  story 
reached  by  stairs  leading  from  the  colonnade  (18).  It  may  be 
that  this  part  of  the  house  took  the  place  of  a  garden  in  which 
previously  there  was  an  outside  kitchen ;  that  the  ground  be- 
longed to  the  house  from  the  beginning  is  clear  from  the  exist- 
ence of  a  door  between  the  rooms  6'  and  3,  afterwards  walled 
up,  and  the  appearance  of  the  unbroken  party  wall  on  this 
side. 

The  rooms  about  the  atrium  had  no  upper  floor,  and  were 
relatively  high  ;  the  doors  measured  nearly  twelve  feet  in  height, 
and  the  ceiling  of  the  tablinum  was  not  far  from  twenty  feet  above 
the  floor.  In  respect  to  height,  this  house  was  not  unlike  those 
of  the  next  period. 

In  the  later  years  of  the  city,  but  before  63,  the  decoration 
was  renewed  in  the  fourth  style.  There  are  paintings  of  inter- 
est, however,  only  in  the  room  at  the  rear  (19),  which  had  a 
large  window  opening  on  the  garden.  In  one  of  the  panels 
here  we  see  a  man  sitting  with  a  writing  tablet  in  his  hand; 
opposite  him  are  two  girls,  one  sitting,  the  other  standing ;  the 
latter  holds  a  roll  of  papyrus.  This  kind  of  genre  picture  is  not 
uncommon;  the  type  is  spoken  of  elsewhere  (p.  477)- 

In    another    panel,    which    was    transferred    to    the    Naples 


282 


POMPEII 


Museum,  a  young  woman  is  represented  as  painting  a  herm 
of  Dionysus  (Fig.  133);  a  Cupid  is  holding  the  unfinished  pic- 
ture while  she  mixes  colors  on  her  palette.  Two  other  maid- 
ens are  watching  the  artist  with  unfeigned  interest.  Upon  the 
pillar  behind  the  herm  hangs  a  small  painting;  in  the  vista 
another  herm  is  seen,  together  with  a  vase  standing  on  a  pillar. 


Fig.  133.  —  A  young  woman  painting  a  herm. 
Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the  Surgeon. 

The  room  contained  a  third  picture  which  is  now  almost 
obliterated.  Perhaps  this  pleasant  apartment  was  once  the 
boudoir  of  a  favorite  daughter,  who  busied  herself  with  painting 
and  verse. 


CHAPTER   XXXV 

THE  HOUSE   OF  SALLUST 

The  house  of  Sallust  (VI.  ii.  4)  received  its  name  from  an 
election  notice,  painted  on  the  outside,  in  which  Gaius  Sallustius 
was  recommended  for  a  municipal  office.  It  has  no  peristyle, 
and  its  original  plan  closely  resembled  that  of  the  house  of  the 
Surgeon.  It  was  built  in  the  second  century  b.c.  ;  the  architec- 
ture is  that  of  the  Tufa  Period,  and  the  well  preserved  decora- 
tion of  the  atrium,  tablinum,  alae,  and  the  dining  room  at  the 
left  of  the  tablinum  (Fig.  134,  22)  is  of  the  first  style.  The 
pilasters  at  the  entrances  of  the  alae  and  the  tablinum  are  also 
unusually  well  preserved ;  the  house  is  among  the  most  impor- 
tant for  our  knowledge  of  the  period  to  which  it  belongs. 

The   rooms   on   the    left  side  (6-9)  were   used   as  a  bakery. 
Those  in  front  (2-5)  were  shops;  two  of  them  (2,  3),  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  the  city,  opened  into  the  fauces  (i)' 
and  another  (5)  had  two  rear  rooms,  one  of  which  was  entered 
from  a  side  street.  '^-- 

The  rooms  at  the  right  (31-36)  were  private  apartments 
added  later  and  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  house  only  by 
means  of  the  corridor  (29),  which  with  the  cell  designed  for  the 
porter  (30)  was  made  over  from  one  of  the  side  rooms  of  the 
atrium. 

If  we  leave  these  groups  of  rooms  out  of  consideration,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  the  Tuscan  atrium  and  the  apartments  con- 
nected with  it  —  the  tablinum  (19),  the  alae  (17),  and  the  rooms 
at  the  sides  —  once  formed  a  symmetrical  whole.  At  the  rear 
was  a  garden  on  two  sides  (24,  24'),  with  a  colonnade.  A 
broad  window  in  the  rear  of  the  left  ala  opened  into  this  colon- 
nade (p.  259),  a  part  of  whicii  was  afterwards  enclosed,  mak- 
ing   two    small    rooms    (23,    18).       At    the    end    of    the    latter 

283 


284 


POMPEII 


room  a  stairway  was  built  leading  to  chambers ;  in   the  begin- 
ning the  house  had  no  second  floor. 

The  andron  (20),  the  wardrobe  (17')  at  the  side  of  the  right 
ala,  and  the  small  room  back  of  it  (28)  were  made  out  of  a 
square  room  corresponding  in  dimensions  with  that  at  the  other 


—  \ 


^oJL/.-C'^^,^^ 


fn- 


Fig.  134. —  Plan  of  the  house  of  Sallust. 

I.    Fauces.  2,  3.    Shops  opening  on  the  fauces.  4,  5.    Shops.  6-g.    Bakery    (6.    Mill 

room  with  three  mills  (a),  and  stairway  to  upper  floor.  7.    Oven.  S.    Kneading  room.) 

9.    Kitchen.  10.    Tuscan  atrium,  with  impluvium  (11) .  12.    Anteroom  leading  to  din- 

ing room  (13).  17)17-    Alae.  ig.    Tablinum.  20.    Andron,  with  doors  at  both  ends. 

21.    Colonnade  opening  on  the  garden  (24,  24').  25.    Garden  triclinium.  29-36.    Private 

apartments,  added  in  Roman  times  to  the  older  dwelling     (31.    Colonnade.  32.    Garden. 

33,  34.    Sleeping  rooms.  35.    Dining  room.  36.    Kitchen.) 


end  of  the  tablinum  (22).  The  latter  was  originally  entered 
from  the  atrium  by  a  door  at  c,  which  was  closed  when  the  wide 
door  was  made  at  the  rear  opening  upon  the  colonnade.  At 
the  rear  of  the  tablinum  is  a  broad  window. 


THE    HOUSE    OF   SALLUST  285 

In  the  corner  of  the  garden  is  an  open  air  triclinium  (25), 
over  which  vines  could  be  trained;  there  was  a  small  altar  (/) 
near  by.  At  «  a  jet  of  water  spurted  from  an  opening  in  the 
wall  upon  a  small  platform  of  masonry ;  the  water  was  perhaps 
conducted  into  the  rectangular  basin  (/')  opposite,  the  inside  of 
which  was  painted  blue.  Only  the  edges  of  this  portion  of  the 
garden,  which  is  higher  than  the  floor  of  the  colonnade,  were 
planted ;  steps  led  up  to  it  at  /  and  g.  A  hearth  (/)  was  placed 
in  the  colonnade  at  the  left,  for  the  preparation  of  the  viands 
served  in  the  triclinium.  The  room  at  the  other  end  of  the 
garden  (27)  was  connected  with  the  street  at  the  rear  by  a 
posticum  ;  back  of  it  was  an  open  space  (26)  with  remains  of 
masonry  {vi),  the  purpose  of  which  is  not  clear. 

The  large  dining  room  (13)  may  once  have  belonged  to  the 
bakery;  the  anteroom  (12)  leading  to  it  was  made  from  one  of 
the  side  rooms  of  the  atrium.  The  arrangement  recalls  that  of 
the  dining  room  of  which  the  plan  is  given  in  Fig.  124. 

The  appearance  of  the  atrium  in  its  original  form  may  be 
suggested  by  our  restoration  (Fig.  135).  The  proportions  are 
monumental.  The  treatment  of  the  entrances  to  the  tablinum 
and  the  alae,  with  pilasters  joined  by  projecting  entablatures, 
the  severe  and  simple  decoration  (illustrated  in  Fig.  261),  and 
the  admission  of  light  through  the  compluvium  increased  the 
apparent  height  of  the  room  and  gave  it  an  aspect  of  dignity 
and  reserve.  At  the  rear  we  catch  glimpses  of  the  vines  and 
shrubs  at  the  edge  of  the  garden  ;  painted  trees  and  bushes  were 
also  seen  upon  the  garden  wall. 

The  series  of  apartments  entered  through  the  room  at  the 
right  of  the  atrium  (29)  present  a  marked  contrast  with  the  rest 
of  the  house.  They  are  low,  the  eight-sided,  dark-red  columns 
of  the  colonnade  (31),  with  their  white  capitals,  being  less  than 
ten  feet  high  ;  and  the  dark  shades  of  the  decoration, which  is  in 
th^  fourth  style  upon  a  black  ground,  give  a  gloomy  impression 
to  one  coming  from  the  atrium  with  its  masses  of  brilliant  color. 

There  was  a  small  fountain  in  the  middle  of  the  little  garden 
(32),  the  rear  wall  of  which  is  covered  by  a  painting  represent- 
ing the  fate  of  Actaeon,  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  hounds  as  a 
penalty  for  having  seen  Diana  at  the  bath.     At  first  the  colon- 


286 


POMPEII 


^/iT 


nade  had  a  flat  roof,  with  an  open  walk  above  on  the  three 
sides;  but  when  the  large  dining  room  (35)  was  constructed, 
the  flat  roof  and  promenade  on  this  side  were  replaced  by  a 
sloping  roof  over  the  broad  entrance  to  the  dining  room.  On 
the  outer  walls   of  the  two  sleeping  rooms   i}^,  34)  were  two 


Fig.  135.  —  Atrium  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  looking  througli  tlie  tublinuni  and  colonnade 
at  the  rear  into  the  garden,  restored. 

paintings  of  similar  design,  Europa  v/ith  the  bull,  Phrixus  and 
Helle  with  the  ram.  The  rear  inner  wall  of  34  contained  two 
pairs  of  lovers,  Paris  and  Helen  in  the  house  of  Menelaus,  and 
Ares  and  Aphrodite.  The  room  at  the  corner  of  the  colonnade 
(36)  is  the  kitchen  ;  the  stairway  in  it  led  to  the  flat  roof  of  the 
colonnade. 

This  portion  of  the  house  probably  dates  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  Republic  ;  it  underwent  minor  changes  in  the  course  of 
the  century  during  which  it  was  used.      Previously  there  was  in 


THE   HOUSE   OF   SALLUST 


287 


all  probability  a  garden  on  this  side,  into  which  opened  a  large 
window  in  the  rear  wall  of  the  right  ala,  afterwards  closed. 

The  changes  made  in  the  stately  house  of  the  pre-Roman 
time  are  most  easily  explained  on  the  supposition  that  near  the 
beginning  of  the  Empire  it  was  turned  into  a  hotel  and  restau- 
rant. The  shop  at  the  left  of  the  entrance  (3)  opens  upon  the 
atrium  as  well  as  on  the  street ;  the  principal  counter  is  on  the 
side  of  the  fauces,  and  near  the  inner  end  is  a  place  for  heating 
a  vessel  over  the  fire.  Large  jars  were  set  in  the  counter,  and 
there  was  a  stone  table  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  Here  edi- 
bles and  hot  drinks  were  sold  to  those  inside  the  house  as  well 
as  to  passers-by.     The  shop  at  the  right  of  the  entrance  was  -vv  5 


Fig.  136.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  restored. 
.At  the  left,  the  fauces  with  the  counter  of  the  shop ;  then  the  north  side  of  the  atrium  with 
the  entrance  of  the  left  ala,  the  north  side  of  the  tablinum,  with  one  of  the  pilasters  at 
the  entrance  from  the  atrium  ;  lastly,  the  colonnade  at  the  back  and  the  vine-covered 
triclinium  in  the  corner  of  the  garden. 


connected  with  the  fauces,  the  atrium,  and  a  side  room  (16). 
The  number  of  sleeping  rooms  had  been  increased  by  changes 
in  several  of  the  earlier  apartments,  and  by  the  addition  of  a 
second  floor  reached  by  the  stairway  in  room  18.  The  private 
apartments  were  for  the  use  of  the  proprietor,  and  were  guarded 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  guests  of  the  inn  by  the  porter 
stationed  at  the  entrance  (in  30). 

This  explanation  is  confirmed  by  the  close  connection  of  the 
bakery  with  the  house  ;  and  the  use  of  the  open-air  triclinium 
is  entirely  consistent  with  it  (p.  404).  The  arrangement  of 
the  house  after  it  had  become  an  inn  may  be  seen  in  our  sec- 
tion (Fig.  136). 


CHAPTER    XXXVI 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  FAUN 


The  house  of  the  Faun,  so  named  from  the  statue  of  a 
dancing  satyr  found  in  it  (Fig.  258),  was  among  the  largest 
and  most  elegant  in  Pompeii.  It  illustrates  for  us  the  type  of 
dwelling  that  wealthy  men  of  cultivated  tastes  living  in  the 
third  or  second  century  B.C.  built  and  adorned  for  themselves. 
The  mosaic  pictures  found  on  the  floors  (now  in  the  Naples  Mu- 
seum) are  the  most  beautiful  that  have  survived  to  modern  times. 


V^      yt.\\ 


Fig.  137,  —  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Faun. 

Fauces  of  Tuscan  atrium.         I,  J.    Dining  rooms.  c,c'.   Alae  of  tetrastyle  atrium. 

K.    Second  peristyle.  e.    Storeroom. 
L.    Large   room  used  as  wine-    /,/'■    Sleeping  rooms. 

cellar.  o,  o' .    Bath. 

M.  Kitchen.  q.    Gardener's  room. 

N.  Bedroom.  r.   Doorkeeper's  room. 

a.  Vestibule.  v.    Broad  niche  for  three  statues. 

b.  Tetrastyle  atrium.  1-4.    Shops. 


A 

B.  Tuscan  atrium. 

C,  C.    Alae. 

D.  Tablinum. 

E,  F.    Dining  rooms. 
G.    First  peristyle. 
H.  Exedra  with  mosaic  of  the 

battle  of  Alexander. 


The  wall  decoration,  which  is  of  the  first  style,  in  the  more  im- 
portant rooms  was  left  unaltered  to  the  last,  and  is  well  preserved. 
This  decoration,  however,  does  not  date  from  the  building  of 
the  hquse.  In  order  to  protect  the  painted  surfaces  against 
moistiire,  the  walls  in  the  beginning  were  carefully  covered  with 
sheets  of  lead  before  they  were  plastered.     Later  two  doorways 

288 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE    FAUN  289 

were  walled  up,  and  the  plastering  over  the  apertures,  which 
was  applied  directly  to  the  wall  surface  without  the  use  of 
lead  sheathing,  forms  with  its  decoration  an  inseparable  part  of 
that  found  on  either  side.  When  the  original  decoration  was 
replaced  by  that  which  we  see  on  the  walls  to-day  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine,  but  the  change  must  have  been  made 
before  the  first  century  b.c.  A  few  unimportant  rooms  are 
painted  in  the  second  and  fourth  styles. 

An  entire  block  (VI.  xii.),  measuring  approximately  315  by 
1 1 5  feet,  is  given  to  the  house ;  there  are  no  shops  except  the 
four  in  front  (Fig.  137).  The  apartments  are  arranged  in  four 
groups :  a  large  Tuscan  atrium,  B,  with  living  rooms  on  three 
sides ;  a  small  tetrastyle  atrium,  /;,  with  rooms  for  domestic 
service  around   it  and  ex-   1 

tending  on   the  right  side   I     _.  .   .   ^    

toward    the    rear    of    the   .^^  |»||im«B«,  ^  | 

house ;    a  peristyle,  G,  the  Lmb||kbh^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
depth  of  which  equals  the   ^^I^^HHi^Hl^li^^l^^ 
width  of  the  large  and  half  I 

I    r    T    r   r   r    r    ••   "    "   r 

that  of   the  small   atrium ;        ^.       „      r,       ^  , 

rig.  138.  —  Fart  of  the  cornice  over  the  large 

and  a  second  peristyle,  K,  front  door, 

occupying    more     than    a 

third  of  the  block.  At  the  rear  of  the  second  peristyle  is  a 
series  of  small  rooms  (^-//)  the  depth  of  which  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  deviation  of  the  street  at  the  north  end  of  the  insula. 

In  front  of  the  main  entrance  we  read  the  word  HAVE  (more 
commonly  written  ai'r),  '  Welcome  !  '  spelled  in  the  sidewalk 
with  bits  of  green,  yellow,  red,  and  white  marble.  The  street 
door  here,  quite  exceptionally,  was  at  the  outer  end  of  the  vesti- 
bule. It  consisted  of  three  leaves  (seen  in  Fig.  139)  and  opened 
toward  the  inside,  while  the  double  door  between  the  vestibule 
and  the  fauces  (A  on  the  plan)  opened  toward  the  outside;  the 
closed  vestibule  was  not  unlike  those  of  many  modern  houses. 
Fragments  of  the  lintel  over  the  outer  door,  with  its  projecting 
dentil  cornice,  are  preserved  in  one  of  the  shops  (Fig.  138). 

The  shops  with  their  upper  floors,  pergidae,  were  nine- 
teen feet  high.  When  the  shutters  were  up  they  presented 
a  monotonous  appearance  (Fig.  139),  but  on  sunny  days,  when 


290 


POMPEII 


the  articles  offered  for  sale  were  attractively  displayed,  and 
buyers  and  idlers  were  loitering  in  front  or  leisurely  passing 
from  one  to  the  other,  shops  and  street  alike  were  full  of  color 
and  animation. 

The  floor  of  the  fauces,  as  of  many  of  the  other  rooms,  is  rich 
in  color.     It  is  made  of  small  triangular  pieces  of  marble  and 


H  !  I ;  M 


;iitntfffirffiTfrff!fTfniHTn 


Fig.  139.  —  Facade  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  restored. 
At  the  left,  the  front  of  a  shop  (i  on  the  plan)  with  its  upper  floor;  then  the  large  front 
door,  tvvo  shops,  the  entrance  of  the  smaller  atrium  and  the  fourth  shop,  which,  like  the 
second,  is  completely  closed  by  shutters. 

slate  —  red,  yellow,  green,  white,  and  black.  At  the  inner  end 
it  was  marked  off  from  the  floor  of  the  atrium  by  a  stripe  of 
finely  executed  mosaic,  suggestive  of  a  threshold  (Fig.  140), 
now  in  the  Naples  Museum.  Two  tragic  masks  are  realistically 
outlined,  appearing  in  the  midst  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  garlands, 
the  details  of  which  are  worked  out  with  much  skill. 


l-ig.  140. —  llordrr  ot   niMiaic  with  tragic  ma^ks,  fruits,  flowci--,  ami  gar'and^,  al  the  inner 

end  of  the  fauces. 


The  walls  of  the  fauces  are  ornamented  in  an  unusual  manner. 
The  ordinary  decoration  of  the  first  style  is  carried  to  the  height 
of  eight  feet.     Above  this  on  either  side  projects  a  tufa  shelf 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE    FAUN  291 

about  sixteen  inches  wide,  on  which  is  placed  the  fai^ade  of  a 
diminutive  temple;  that  on  the  left  is  seen  in  Fig.  141.  The 
front  of  the  cella,  with  closed  doors,  is  presented  in  relief,  but 
the  four  columns  of  the  portico  stand  free.  The  shelf  is  sup- 
ported underneath  by  a  cornice  which  rested  originally  on  stucco 
brackets  in  the  shape  of  dogs ;  the  underside  is  carved  to  repre- 
sent a  richly  ornamented  coffered  ceiling. 

The  atrium  was  a  room  of  imposing  dimensions.  The  length 
is  approximately  53  feet,  the  breadth  33;  the  height,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  remains  of  the  walls  and  the  pilasters,  was  cer- 
tainly not  less  than  28  feet.  Above  was  a  coffered  ceiling. 
The  sombre  shade  of  the  floor,  paved  with  small  pieces  of  dark 
slate,  formed  an  effective  contrast  with  the  white  limestone 
edge  and  brilliant  inner  surface  of  the  shallow  impluvium,  cov- 
ered with  pieces  of  colored  marbles  similar  to  those  in  the 
fauces.  Still  more  marked  was  the  contrast  in  the  strong  colors 
of  the  walls.  Below  was  a  broad  surface  of  black ;  then  a  pro- 
jecting white  dentil  cornice,  and  above  this,  masses  of  dark  red, 
bluish  green,  and  yellow.  The  decoration,  as  usual  in  the  first 
style,  was  not  carried  to  the  ceiling,  but  stopped  just  above  the 
side  doors ;  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  was  left  in  the  white. 

As  one  stepped  across  the  mosaic  border  at  the  end  of  the 
fauces,  a  beautiful  vista  opened  up  before  the  eyes.  From  the 
aperture  of  the  compluvium  a  diffused  light  was  spread  through 
the  atrium  brilliant  with  its  rich  coloring.  At  the  rear  the  lofty 
entrance  of  the  tablinum  attracted  the  visitor  by  its  stately 
dignity.  Now  the  portieres  are  drawn  aside,  and  beyond  the 
large  window  of  the  tablinum  the  columns  of  the  first  peristyle 
are  seen  (Fig.  141).  The  shrubs  and  flowers  of  the  garden  are 
bright  with  sunshine,  and  fragrant  odors  are  wafted  through  the 
house ;  in  the  midst  a  slender  fountain  jet  rises  in  the  air  and 
falls  with  a  murmur  pleasant  to  the  ear.  If  the  vegetation  was 
not  too  luxuriant,  one  might  look  into  the  exedra,  on  the  further 
side  of  the  colonnade,  and  even  catch  glimpses  of  the  trees  and 
bushes  in  the  garden  of  the  second  peristyle. 

Of  the  rooms  at  the  side  of  the  atrium,  one  (/')  was  appar- 
ently the  family  sleeping  room  ;  places  for  two  beds  were  set 
off  by  slight  elevations  in  the  floor.     This  room  had  been  care- 


292 


POMPEII 


fully  redecorated  in  the  second  style  ;  the  room  opposite,  the 
decoration  of  which  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  rest,  was  perhaps 
used  by  the  porter  {atricnsis). 

The  tablinum  (D),  like  that  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  had  a 
broad  window  opening  on  the  colonnade  of  the  peristyle.  In 
the  middle  of  this  room  is  a  rectangular  section  paved  with  loz- 
enge-shaped pieces  of  black,  white,  and  green  stone  ;  the  rest  of 
the  floor  is  of  white  mosaic.  The  floor  of  each  ala  was  orna- 
mented with  a  mosaic  picture.  In  that  at  the  left  (C)  are  doves 
pulling  a  necklace  out  of  a  casket  —  a  work  of  slight  merit. 


Vestibule     Fauces 
Door 


Ala(C)  Tablinum  (D) 

Fig.  141.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  showing  the  large 


Tuscan  atrium  with  eompluvium  and 
impluviuni  (B) 


The  mosaic  picture  found  in  the  right  ala  is  characterized  by 
delicacy  of  execution  and  harmonious  coloring.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts  ;  above  is  a  cat  with  a  partridge ;  below,  ducks, 
fishes,  and  shellfish.  A  large  window  in  the  rear  wall  of  this 
ala  opens  into  the  small  atrium,  not  for  the  admission  of  light, 
but  for  ventilation  ;  in  summer  there  would  be  a  circulation  of 
air  between  the  two  atriums. 

Two  doors,  at  the  right  and  the  left  of  the  tablinum  (seen  in 
Fig.  143),  opened  into  large  dining  rooms,  one  (E)  nearly  square, 
the  other  (F)  oblong.  Both  had  large  windows  on  the  side 
of  the  peristyle,  and  the  one  at  the  left  also  a  door  opening 
upon  the  colonnade.  The  mosaic  pictures  in  the  floors  har- 
monized well  with  the  purpose  of  the  rooms.  In  one  were  fishes 
of  various  kinds,  and  sea  monsters  ;  in  the  other  was  the  picture 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE    FAUN 


293 


—  often  reproduced  —  in  which  the  Genius  of  the  autumn  is  rep- 
resented as  a  vine-crowned  boy  sitting  on  a  panther  and  drink- 
ing out  of  a  deep  golden  bowl. 

The  colonnade  of  the  first  peristyle  was  of  one  story  (Fig. 
141).  The  entablature  of  the  well  proportioned  Ionic  columns 
presented  a  mixture  of  styles  often  met  with  in  Pompeii,  a  Doric 
frieze  with  a  dentil  cornice.  The  wall  surfaces  were  divided  by 
pilasters  and  decorated  in  the  first  style.  In  the  middle  of  the 
garden  the  delicately  carved  standard  of  a  marble  fountain  basin 
may  still  be  seen. 


siiinniiniiiiiiiiitiiii 


V^*  x\^  i 


First  peristyle  with  colonnade  and  fountain  basin  (G)  Exedra  (H) 

atrium,  the  first  peristyle,  and  a  corner  of  the  second  peristyle,  restored, 


Corner  of  tlie  second   lOcjcL^  LOX.  /  .  9&j 
peristyle  (K) 


The  open  front  of  the  broad  exedra  (H)  was  adorned  with  two 
columns,  and  at  the  rear  was  a  window  extending  almost  from 
side  to  side,  opening  upon  the  second  peristyle.  Between  the 
columns  of  the  entrance  were  mosaic  pictures  of  the  creatures 
of  the  Nile,  —  hippopotamus,  crocodile,  ichneumon,  and  ibis ; 
and  in  the  room,  filling  almost  the  entire  floor,  was  the  most 
famous  of  ancient  mosaic  pictures,  the  battle  between  Alexander 
and  Darius. 

This  great  composition  has  so  often  been  reproduced  that  we 
need  not  present  it  here  ;  as  illustrating  the  style  and  treatment, 
however,  we  give  a  small  section,  in  which  the  face  of  Alexander 
appears  .(Fig.  142).  The  mosaic  is  a  reproduction  of  a  painting 
made  either  in  the  lifetime  of  Alexander,  or  soon  after  his  death. 
The  battle  is  perhaps  that  of  Issus.     The  left  side  of  the  picture 


!94 


POMPEII 


is  unfortunately  only  in  part  preserved.  At  the  head  of  the 
Greek  horsemen  rides  Alexander,  fearless,  unhelmeted,  leading  a 
charge  against  the  picked  guard  of  Darius.  The  long  spear  of 
the  terrible  Macedonian  is  piercing  the  side  of  a  Persian  noble, 
whose  horse  sinks  under  him.  The  driver  of  Darius's  chariot 
is  putting  the  lash  to  the  horses,  but  the  fleeing  king  turns  with 
an  expression  of  anguish  and  terror  to  witness  the  death  of  his 
courtier,  the  mounted  noblemen  about  him  being  panic-stricken 


Fig.  142.  —  Detail  from  the  mosaic  picture  representing  a  battle  between  Alexander  and 

Darius. 

Alexander,  having  thrown  aside  his  helmet,  is  leading  the  charge  upon  the  guard  of  Darius, 

who  is  already  in  flight. 


at  the  resistless  onset  of  the  Greeks.  The  grouping  of  the  com- 
batants, the  characterization  of  the  individual  figures,  the  skill 
with  which  the  expressions  upon  the  faces  are  rendered,  and  the 
delicacy  of  coloring  give  this  picture  a  high  rank  among  ancient 
works  of  art.  The  colors  in  the  mosaic  are  necessarily  more 
subdued  than  in  the  original  painting. 

A  corridor  (/),  both  ends  of  which  could  be  closed,  led  from 
the  first  to  the  second  peristyle.  The  columns  here,  of  the 
Doric  order,  were  of  brick,  with  tufa  capitals,  the  shafts  being 
edged,  not  fluted.  The  entablature  rested  on  a  line  of  timbers,  as 
often  in  the  buildings  of  the  Tufa  Period.     In  our  restoration 


THE    HOUSR    OF   THE    FAUN  295 

(Fig.  141)  an  upper  colonnade  of  the  Ionic  order  is  assumed, 
extending  about  the  four  sides.  The  restoration  is  here  possibly 
at  fault ;  the  colonnade  may  have  been  in  two  stories  only  on 
the  south  side,  with  twice  as  many  columns  above  as  below. 

On  either  side  of  the  exedra  were  two  dining  rooms  (I,  J),  one 
open  in  its  entire  breadth  upon  the  second  peristyle,  the  other 
having  a  narrow  door  with  two  windows.  The  fine  mosaic 
picture  in  I  was  found  in  so  damaged  a  condition  that  the  sub- 
ject—  a  lion  standing  over  a  prostrate  tiger  —  could  not  be  made 
out,  until  a  duplicate  was  discovered  in  1885. 

In  the  sleeping  room  on  the  other  side  of  the  corridor  (N), 
which  had  been  redecorated  in  the  second  style,  remains  of  two 
beds  were  found.  The  room  next  to  it  (L)  was  the  largest  in 
this  part  of  the  house ;  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  it  was  with- 
out decoration  and  was  used  as  a  wine  cellar.  A  great  number 
of  amphorae  were  found  in  it,  as  also  in  both  peristyles. 

One  of  the  small  rooms  at  the  rear  (q)  was  perhaps  occupied 
by  the  gardener;  the  one  next  to  it  (r)  was  the  doorkeeper's 
room.  At  v  is  a  long,  shallow  niche,  designed  for  statues. 
Nearer  the  corner  were  two  smaller  niches,  each  of  which  was 
ornamented  in  front  with  pilasters  and  a  gable.  These  were 
the  shrines  of  the  household  gods  ;  in  front  of  them  were  found 
two  bronze  tripods,  two  bronze  lamp  stands,  two  pairs  of  iron 
tongs,  a  couple  of  common  lamps,  and  the  remains  of  a  branch 
of  laurel  with  the  bones  and  eggs  of  a  dove  that  had  nested  in 
it.  A  bronze  statuette  of  a  Genius  was  found  seemingly  in 
one  of  the  niches. 

The  domestic  apartments  were  entered  by  a  front  door 
between  the  two  shops  at  the  right  (Fig.  139).  The  vestibule, 
unHke  that  of  the  other  entrance,  is  open  to  the  street,  the 
fauces  being  narrower  and  deeper.  The  relation  of  the  tetra- 
style  to  the  Tuscan  atrium  is  indicated  in  our  transverse  section 
(Fig.  143).  The  alae  {c,  c')  are  here  at  the  middle  of  the  sides; 
the  one  at  the  left  served  as  a  passageway  between  the  two 
atriums.  The  four  tufa  Corinthian  columns,  nearly  twenty  feet 
high,  are  well  preserved,  as  well  as  the  pilasters  at  the  entrances 
of  the  alae.  A  tablinum  was  not  needed  in  this  part  of  the 
house,  and  the  space  which  it  might  have  occupied  was  given 


296 


POMPEII 


to  the  andron  (k)  and  a  sleeping  room  opening  on  the  first 
peristyle  (/). 

This  part  of  the  house  was  much  damaged  by  the  earthquake 
of  6t,,  and  there  are  many  traces  of  repairs,  particularly  in  the 
upper  rooms.  The  walls  were  simply  painted  in  the  fourth 
style.  Two  money  chests  stood  on  large  flat  stones  in  the  rear 
corners  of  this  atrium. 

In  one  of  the  rooms  at  the  front  (c)  there  are  traces  of 
shelves;  stairs  at  one  side  led  to  the  upper  rooms  at  the  left 
of  the  atrium,  the  shape  and  size  of  which  are  indicated  in 
Fig.  143.     On  the  right,  also,  there  were  small  chambers  over 


V'   ><■  \^ 


Sleeping  room  (f)    Tuscan  atrium  (B)  with  en-       Leftala(c) 

trance  of  tablinum  (D)     ot  tetrasfyle  atrium 


Tetrastyk-  atrium  (li) 


Fig.  143- 


■Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  the  Faun,  showing  the  two  atriums  with 
adjoining  rooms. 


g,  Ji,  and  //,  on  the  same  level  as  the  second  floor  of  the  shop 
in  front  (4),  and  accessible  only  by  means  of  the  stairway  in 
this  shop ;  there  were  no  other  stairs  in  this  corner  of  the 
house,  and  these  rooms  could  not  have  been  connected  with 
chambers  over  other  parts  of  the  atrium,  because  there  were  no 
upper  rooms  over  the  fauces  and  the  right  ala  {c').  Another 
stairway  in  d,  partly  of  wood,  led  to  chambers  over  /,  d\  n' ,  n, 
o,  0' ,  and  part  of  the  kitchen,  M. 

Bronze  vessels  and  remains  of  ivory  feet  belonging  to  a  bed- 
stead were  found  in  the  double  room  //,  // ;  but  it  is  more  likely 
that  this  was  used  as  a  storeroom  for  discarded  furniture  than 
that  members  of  the  family  slept  here. 

A  long  corridor  at  the  end    of  the   first    peristyle  (///)  con- 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE    FAUN  297 

nected  the  rooms  at  the  right  of  the  small  atrium  with  the 
closet  (;/),  the  bath  {&,  o'),  the  kitchen  (M),  and  the  large  bed- 
room (N)  opening  on  the  second  peristyle.  The  two  rooms  of 
the  bath,  tepidarium  and  caldarium,  were  provided  with  hollow 
floors  and  walls,  and  were  heated  from  the  kitchen,  into  which 
the  draft  vents  (p.  188)  opened;  in  order  to  make  the  smoke 
less  objectionable,  the  kitchen  was  built  very  high,  with  several 
windows. 

The  kitchen  is  of  unusual  size.  A  niche  for  the  images  of 
the  household  gods  was  placed  in  the  wall  at  the  left,  so  high 
up  that  it  could  only  have  been  reached  by  means  of  a  ladder. 
The  front  is  shaped  to  resemble  the  facade  of  a  small  temple, 
and  in  it  is  a  small  altar  of  terra  cotta  for  the  burning  of 
incense. 

The  first  room  at  the  right  of  the  corridor  (;/')  was  completely 
excavated  in  1900,  and  found  to  be  a  stall.  In  it  were  brought 
to  light  the  skeletons  of  two  cows  and  of  four  human  beings,  an 
adult  and  three  children. 


Vfc 


'^iv>  .  aCc^<iL 


CHAPTER    XXXVII 

/3 

A   HOUSE  NEAR    THE  PORTA   MARINA 

The  height  of  the  important  rooms  can  be  accurately  deter- 
mined in  so  few  houses  of  the  Tufa  Period,  that  special  impor- 
tance attaches  to  a  house  on  the  edge  of  the  city  north  of  the 

Porta  Marina  (No. 
13),  in  which  not 
merely  the  three-quar- 
ter columns  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  tablinum, 
but  also  the  pilasters 
at  the  corners  of  the 
fauces  and  alae  and  part 
of  the  Ionic  columns  of 
the  peristyle  are  seen 
in  their  full  height. 
The  atrium  is  the  best 

Fig.  144.  —  Plan  of  the  house  near  the  Porta  Marina.       preserved      of      any     in 

the  large  pre-Roman 
houses,  and  the  height  of  the  ceiling  in  several  of  the  adjoining 
rooms  is  clearly  indicated.  The  house  lies  about  seventy  paces 
north  of  the  Strada  della  Marina,  on  the  last  street  leading  to  the 
right.     It  is  without  a  name  and  is  seldom  visited. 

Neither  the  decoration,  renewed  in  the  second  style  and  with- 
out paintings,  nor  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms  (Fig.  144)  re- 
quires extended  comment.  There  are  two  atriums,  the  smaller 
with  the  domestic  apartments  being  at  the  left  and  entered  directly 
from  the  street.  The  fauces  of  the  other  are  of  unusual  width, 
being  about  two  fifths  of  the  width  of  the  atrium.  The  alae  are 
at  the  middle  of  the  sides,  as  in  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus  and 
the  smaller  atrium  of  the  house  of  the  Faun.     At  the  sides  of 

298 


A   HOUSE   NEAR  THE   PORTA   MARINA 


299 


the  tablinum  are  large  windows  opening  into  two  dining  rooms, 
which  are  entered  from  the  peristyle. 

More  than  a  third  of  the  plot  enclosed  by  the  peristyle  is  taken 
up  by  a  deep  rectangular  basin  for  fish.  At  the  rear  are  appar- 
ently other  rooms,  adjusted  to  the  slope  of  the  ground,  which, 
however,  have  not  yet  been  excavated. 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  easier  to  appreciate  the  stately  character  of 
the  pre-Roman  atriums  if  we  give  a  few  of  the  dimensions  which 
were  used  in  making  our  restoration  (Fig.  145). 

The  atrium  is  41  by  29  feet.  The  tablinum  measures  13  feet 
9  inches  between  the  three-quarter  columns  which  stand,  in 
place  of  the  usual  pilasters,  at  the  entrance ;  it  is  thus  half  as 
wide  as  the  atrium.     The  height  of  the  tablinum  at  the  entrance 


Fauces 
Vestibule 


Atrium 

Fig.  145.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  near  the  Porta  Marina. 


is  18  feet  6  inches  ;  according  to  the  proportions  given  by  Vitru- 
vius  it  should  be  1 5  feet  4  inches. 

The  alae  and  fauces  also  exceed  the  dimensions  presented  by 
the  Roman  architect,  the  former  being  I2|  feet  wide  and  16^ 
feet  high,  while  the  height  of  the  broad  fauces,  ly}  feet,  is  only 
a  trifle  less  than  that  of  the  tablinum. 

The  height  of  the  walls  of  the  atrium  is  easily  determined 
with  the  help  of  the  data  before  us  ;  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  roof  over  the  fauces,  atrium,  tablinum,  and  colonnade  of 
the  peristyle  must  have  been  very  similar  to  that  shown  in  our 
restoration.  The  entablature  seen  over  the  entrance  of  the  left 
ala  is  restored  in  accordance  with  the  architectural  forms  com- 
monly used  in  the  period  when  the  house  was  built. 

Both  the  three-quarter  columns  and  the  pilasters  present  a 
peculiarity  of  construction  found  also  in  other  houses,  but  not 


300  POMPEII 

easy  to  explain.  The  former  appear  as  half-columns  on  the  side 
of  the  tablinum,  but  present  fully  three  fourths  of  their  breadth 
on  the  side  of  the  atrium.  The  pilasters  at  the  entrances  of  the 
alae  and  fauces  have,  on  the  inside,  a  good  proportion,  the 
breadth  being  about  one  eighth  of  the  height ;  but  on  the  out- 
side, toward  the  atrium,  they  are  much  more  slender. 

A  well  designed  scroll  pattern  appears  in  the  black  and  white 
mosaic  floor  of  the  fauces,  which,  as  often  in  Pompeian  houses, 
slopes  gently  toward  the  street.  The  floor  of  the  atrium  is  made 
of  black  mosaic  with  pieces  of  colored  marble  arranged  in  rows, 
and  white  stripes  at  the  edges.  The  base  of  a  shrine  for  the 
household  gods  stands  against  the  right  wall.  In  the  first  room 
at  the  right  was  an  alcove  for  a  bed  opposite  the  door ;  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  alcove,  in  the  form  of  a  vault,  was  lower  than  that  of 
the  rest  of  the  room. 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII 

THE  HOUSE   OF   THE  SILVER    WEDDING 

Among  the  more  interesting  of  the  large  houses  excavated  in 
the  last  decade  is  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  which  marks 
the  limit  of  excavation  in  the  fifth  Region  (V.  ii.  a  on  Plan 
VI).  The  main  part  was  cleared  in  1892  (Fig.  8);  and  in  April, 
1893,  in  connection  with  the  festivities  with  which  the  Silver 
Wedding  of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Italy  was  celebrated,  a 
special  excavation  was  made  in  one  of  the  rooms,  in  the  presence 
of  their  Majesties  and  of  their  imperial  guests,  the  Emperor 
and  Empress  of  Germany.  Portions  of  the  house  are  still  cov- 
ered, the  facade,  the  inner  end  of  the  oecus,  and  the  greater 
part  of  an  extensive  garden  on  the  left  side. 

Notwithstanding  the  extent  of  the  house  —  the  greatest  length 
is  not  far  from  150  feet,  the  breadth  of  the  excavated  portion 
130  —  and  the  number  of  apartments,  the  plan  is  simple  (Fig. 
146).  From  the  fauces  {a)  we  pass  into  a  tetrastyle  atrium 
{(i),  the  largest  of  its  kind  yet  discovered,  with  alae  on  either 
side  and  a  high  tablinum  (<?).  Back  of  this  is  a  Rhodian  peri- 
style, at  the  rear  of  which  is  an  exedra  {y)  with  sleeping  rooms 
at  the  right  and  the  left  {x,  z).  Opening  into  the  rear  of  the 
peristyle  on  one  side  is  the  oecus  (4),  on  the  other  a  long  dining 
room  {zv). 

Another  series  of  apartments  lay  between  the  peristyle  and 
the  garden  at  the  right  (2),  a  kitchen  {s\  and  a  bath  {t-v).  In 
front  of  the  garden  and  extending  to  the  street  is  a  small  house 
{a-C)  which  had  been  joined  to  the  larger  establishment ;  it  was 
connected  with  this  by  a  small  door  under  the  stairs  in  the  corner 
of  the  atrium  (/3),  which  opened  into  a  side  room  {c)  of  the  large 
atrium. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  house  date  from  the  Tufa  Period. 
Alterations  were  made  from  time  to  time  in  the  course  of  the 

301 


302 


POMPEII 


two  centuries  during  which  it  was  occupied,  but  they  were  not 
so  extensive  as  to  obscure  the  original  plan.  The  most  obvious 
changes  were  those  affecting  the  wall  decoration. 

In  the  small  rooms  at  the  right  of  the  atrium  are  traces  of  the 

decoration  of  the  first 
style,  which  was  in 
vogue  when  the  house 
was  built.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  Repub- 
lic almost  the  whole  in- 
terior was  redecorated 
in  the  second  style,  but 
without  paintings. 
Brilliant  blocks  and 
panels  dating  from 
this  renovation  may 
still  be  seen  upon  the 
upper  part  of  the  walls 
of  the  atrium  and  on 
those  of  the  oecus,  the 
exedra,  the  two  bed- 
rooms next  to  the  exe- 
dra, and  th  e  front  part  of 
the  long  apodyterium. 
Afterwards     a     few 

I.    Open-air  swimming;  tank,  in  , 

a  small  garden  (2>.  I'OOmS    WCrC    doUC    OVCr 

3.    Corridor    leading  to  another     jn      thc      third      StylC,     Of 

which   scanty  remains 
are  found. 

Lastly,  after  the 
fourth  style  had  come 
into  vogue,  but  before 
60  A.D. — as  shown  by 
an  inscription  on  a  col- 
umn of  the  peristyle  —  a  large  part  of  the  house  was  redecorated 
in  the  fourth  style,  including  the  tablinum,  the  andron  and  the 
room  at  the  right  (q),  the  peristyle,  the  long  dining  room  {zu), 
and  the  inner  portion  of  the  apodyterium.     The  lower  part  of 


r^-*r- 


Fi 


146.  —  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding. 
Fauces. 

Tetrastyle  atrium. 
Dining  room. 


0. 

Tablinum. 

house  and  to  a  side  street. 

p- 

Andron. 

4- 

Oecus. 

r. 

Peristyle. 

6. 

Garden,  partially  e.xcavated. 

s. 

Kitchen. 

7- 

Open-air  triclinium. 

t-v 

.    Bath.    (^v.  Apodyterium. 

a- 

I.    Fauces,  atrium,  and  other 

H.  Tepidarium.    t.  Cal- 

rooms  of  separate  dwelling 

darium.) 

connected  with   the  larger 

7V. 

Summer  dining  room. 

house. 

^> 

2.    Sleeping  rooms. 

y- 

Exedra. 

THE    HOUSE    OE   THE    SILVER   WEDDING  303 

the  walls  of  the  atrium  were  also  painted  over,  but  with  de- 
signs and  coloring  that  harmonized  well  with  the  decoration  of 
the  second  style  above.  In  this  house  the  history  of  Pompeian 
wall  decoration  can  be  followed  from  the  century  after  the  Sec- 
ond Punic  War  to  the  middle  of  the  first  century  of  our  era,  from 
the  time  of  Cato  the  Elder  to  that  of  Claudius  and  Nero.  There 
are  few  paintings,  however,  and  they  are  not  of  special  interest. 

In  marked  contrast  with  the  atriums  in  the  house  of  the  Faun 
and  the  other  houses  which  we  have  examined,  the  atrium  here 
had  a  relatively  large  compluvium  (Fig.  147);  all  parts  of  the 
room  must  have  been  brilliantly  lighted.  In  summer  some  kind 
of  protection  against  the  sun  was  a  necessity.  It  was  probably 
afforded  by  hanging  curtains  between  the  columns ;  on  the  side 
of  each  column,  facing  the  corner  of  the  atrium,  is  a  bronze 
ring  through  which  a  cord  might  have  been  passed  to  use  in 
drawing  the  curtains  back  and  forth.  The  large  compluvium 
with  its  supporting  columns  suggests  the  arrangement  of  the 
Corinthian  atrium. 

The  dimensions  of  the  atrium  are  monumental.  The  length 
is  approximately  54  feet,  the  breadth  40 ;  and  the  Corinthian 
columns  of  tufa  coated  with  stucco,  are  22|  feet  high. 

At  the  rear  of  the  impluvium  is  a  fluted  cistern  curb  of  white 
marble  (seen  in  Fig.  8).  In  the  impluvium  near  the  edge  is  the 
square  pedestal  of  a  fountain  figure,  which  threw  a  jet  into  a 
round  marble  basin  in  front. 

The  doors  of  the  rooms  at  the  sides  of  the  atrium  were  origi- 
nally more  than  thirteen  feet  high  ;  those  which  we  now  see  are 
comparatively  low.  The  height  was  reduced  because  a  second 
floor  was  placed  in  the  rooms,  thus  making  low  chambers, 
which  were  reached  by  three  stairways,  one  ( ^)  at  the  right  of 
the  atrium,  the  other  two  (k  and  1/1)  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
upper  rooms  were  lighted  by  small  windows,  part  of  which 
opened  into  the  atrium,  others  upon  the  garden  on  the  left  side 
of  the  house.  These  changes  were  completed  before  the  atrium 
received  its  decoration  in  the  second  style.  There  was  no  sec- 
ond story  over  the  alae,  the  tablinum,  or  the  rooms  about  the 
peristyle.  In  the  left  ala  was  once  a  large  window  opening  on 
the  garden,  but  it  was  afterwards  walled  up  (p.  259). 


304 


POMPEII 


Y  u'  r  oH 


The  curtain  fastenings  on  the  pilasters  at  the  front  of  the 
tablinum  have  been  referred  to  in  another  connection  (p.  256). 
The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  at  the  sides  is  not  unlike  that  in 
the  house  of  Sallust ;  one,  ;/,  retained  its  original  form ;  the 
other  was  divided  up  into  an  andron  {p),  with  a  bedroom  {q)  at 
one  side. 

The  peristyle  is  remarkably  well  preserved.  We  find  not  only 
the  columns  in  their  full  height,  but  also,  except  on  the  north 
side,  large  portions  of  the  entablature,  with  its  stucco  ornamen- 
tation intact,  supported  on  a  line  of  planks  placed  upon  the 
columns  at  the  time  of  excavation ;  and  the  decoration  of  the 
walls  retains  much  of  its  brilliancy  of  coloring. 


Teirastyle    atrium  Ala  Tablinum 

Fig.  147.  —  Longitudinal  section  of 


The  colonnade  of  this  peristyle  has  been  mentioned  elsewhere 
as  illustrating  the  Rhodian  form  (p.  260).  The  difference  in 
height  between  the  colonnade  in  front  and  on  the  other  three 
sides  was  accentuated  in  the  decoration.  On  the  walls  in  front 
are  large  red  panels  separated  by  architectural  designs  on  a 
yellow  background  ;  the  walls  under  the  lower  part  of  the  colon- 
nade were  painted  with  black  panels,  the  designs  of  the  narrow 
intermediate  sections  being  on  a  white  background.  The  lower 
third  of  the  columns  in  front  was  yellow ;  at  the  sides  and  rear, 
dark  red,  like  that  on  the  lower  part  of  the  high  columns  in  the 
atrium.  Thus  a  pleasing  contrast  was  made  between  the  por- 
tions of  the  colonnade  designed  to  receive  the  sunshine,  par- 
ticularly in  winter,  and  the  shadier  parts  ;  and  the  higher  front 
served  as  an  intermediate  member  between   the  lofty  atrium 


\ 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE   SH.VER   WEDDING 


305 


with  its  stately  tablinum  and  the  lower  rear  division  of  the 
house. 

The  ornamentation  of  the  architrave  retains  no  trace  of  the 
decorative  forms  in  vogue  at  the  time  when  it  was  constructed. 
The  surface,  moulded  in  stucco,  is  divided  into  sections,  cor- 
responding with  the  capitals  and  intercolumniations,  as  in  the 
colonnade  of  the  Stabian  Baths  (Fig.  89);  in  these  sections  are 
small  figures  of  birds  and  animals  and  other  suitable  designs, 
the  effect  being  heightened  by  the  use  of  color. 

That  the  decoration  of  the  peristyle  received  its  present  form 
before  the  earthquake  is  evident  from  an  inscription  scratched 
upon  the  plaster  of  one  of  the  columns  on  the  north  side  : 


Kliiiilidn     peristilt,  Lntrantt 

the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding. 

N crone  dies  are  Augusta 
Cosso  Lentulo  Cossi  fil\io\   co'[ii\s\]ilibns\ 
VI  11  Idus  Febr\ii\arias 
Dies  Soils,  LiiJia  XIIIIX,  }iun\illnae'\  Cunils,  V nun.  Ponipels, — • 

'  In  the  consulship  of  Nero  and  of  Cossus  Lentulus  the  son  of 
Cossus,'  that  is  60  a.d.  The  dates  given  in  the  rest  of  the  in- 
scription are  difficult  to  explain,  and  the  reading  of  the  number 
after  Ltina  is  uncertain.  The  memorandum  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  eighth  day  before  the  Ides  of  February  in  this  year 
was  the  market  day  at  Cumae,  being  Sunday  and  the  sixteenth 
day  after  the  New  Moon  ;  and  that  the  market  day  at  Pompeii 
came  three  days  later.  The  inscription  is  the  earliest  yet  found 
in  which  a  day  of  the  week  is  named  in  connection  with  a  date. 


CSI 


3o6  POMPEII 

The  garden  plot  enclosed  by  the  peristyle  was  watered  by 
means  of  two  jets  at  the  front  corners,  fed  by  pipes  under  the 
floor.  In  the  middle  was  a  slight  elevation  on  which  were  found 
two  crocodiles,  a  huge  toad,  and  a  frog  of  a  whitish  glazed 
earthenware,  apparently  made  in  Egypt.  The  figures  are  about 
sixteen  inches  long. 

Each  of  the  bedrooms  at  the  rear  had  an  alcove  for  a  bed, 
the  ceiling  being  vaulted  over  the  alcove,  flat  between  this 
and  the  door ;  a  distinction  between  the  two  parts  of  the  room 
was  made  also  in  the  wall  decoration  and  in  the  floor,  of  black 
and  white  mosaic.  The  frescoing  on  the  walls  of  the  sleeping 
rooms  presents  a  brilliant  variety  of  colors ;  the  decoration  of 
the  exedra  is  in  yellow.  One  of  the  bedrooms  has  a  small  side 
door  (p.  261).  In  the  large  dining  room  at  the  right  (w)  the 
place  for  the  table  is  indicated  by  an  ornamental  design  in  the 
mosaic  floor ;  in  the  oecus  (4)  the  part  of  the  room  designed 
for  the  table  and  couches  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  a 
difference  in  the  decoration  both  of  the  floor  and  of  the  wall. 

In  the  oecus,  the  excavation  was  made  from  which  the  house 
received  its  name.  The  peristyle  had  already  been  cleared,  and 
the  volcanic  debris  had  been,  for  the  most  part,  removed  from 
the  front  part  of  the  oecus,  leaving  a  layer  at  the  bottom  about 
two  feet  deep.  The  King  and  Queen  of  Italy,  with  the  Em- 
peror and  Empress  of  Germany  and  a  small  suite,  stationed 
themselves  in  the  corner  of  the  peristyle  opposite  the  opening 
of  the  oecus ;  when  all  was  ready  a  line  of  workmen  proceeded 
to  draw  back  the  loose  fragments  of  pumice  stone,  exposing 
the  floor  to  view.  Here  nothing  was  found  except  the  bronze 
fastenings  of  the  large  doors ;  but  a  more  fruitful  outcome  fol- 
lowed a  similar  search  in  a  room  of  a  small  house  adjoining  the 
oecus  on  the  south,  in  which  several  vessels  of  bronze  were 
brought  to  light. 

The  bath  is  unusually  complete  for  a  private  house,  compris- 
ing a  long,  narrow  apodyterium  (■?'),  an  open-air  swimming  tank 
in  the  garden  (i),  a  tepidarium  (;/),  and  a  caldarium  (/).  Steps 
led  down  into  the  swimming  tank  at  the  corner  nearest  the 
door  of  the  apodyterium,  and  also  on  the  side  furthest  from  the 
house ;  on  the  same  side  a  jet  fell  into  it  from  a  marble  stand- 


THE   HOUSE   OF   THE   SILVER   WEDDING 


307 


ard  adorned  with  a  lion's  head.  If  we  imagine  a  thick  growth 
of  shrubs  and  flowers  about  the  tank,  we  have  the  setting  which 
explains  the  tasteful  decoration  of  the  frigidarium  in  the  Stabian 
Baths  (p.  191)  and  in  the  Baths  near  the  Forum. 

The  pavement  of  the  apodyterium  is  especially  effective, 
being  composed  of  small  bits  of  black,  white,  dark  red,  green, 
and  yellow  marble  and  stone ;  near  the  rear  wall  a  place  for  a 
couch  is  left  white. 

The  caldarium  and  the  side  of  the  tepidarium  next  to  it 
were  provided  with  hollow  walls ;  a  hollow  floor  extended  under 
both  rooms.  In  the  left  wall  of  the  tepidarium  is  the  bronze 
mouth  of  a  water  pipe ;  perhaps  in  winter  a  cold  bath  was 
taken  here  rather  than  in  the  swimming  tank.  In  the  caldarium 
the  niche  for  the  labrum  remains ;  the  bath  basin  probably 
stood  opposite  the  entrance,  where  it  could  be  easily  heated 
from  the  kitchen.  ^^  ^j^^ 

'^r|-f:|:!t11-!l'li!11tiri"^'' 


f  r  f 


Garden  with 
colonnade 


Small  atrium 


Tetrastylc  atrium 

Fig.  148. — Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding,  as  it  was  before  63. 


Above  the  broad  hearth  of  the  kitchen  (s),  which  stands 
against  the  wall  adjoining  the  garden,  are  the  vestiges  of  a 
painting  of  the  two  Lares ;  near  them  a  serpent  is  seen  coiled 
around  an  altar,  on  which  is  a  large  pine  cone.  At  the  end  next 
the  caldarium  is  a  depression  in  the  floor,  for  convenience  in 
building  a  fire  to  heat  the  bath  rooms.  In  the  corner  is  a  foun- 
dation of  masonry  to  support  the  vessel,  of  lead,  in  which  water 
was  kept  for  the  bath. 

The  colonnade  at  the  left  of  the  house  (6  on  the  Plan;  see 
Fig.  148),  with  its  slender  eight-sided  columns,  seems  to  have 
been  thrown  down  by  the  earthquake  of  63,  and  removed.  In 
the  place  of  four  of  the  columns  an  open-air  triclinium  was  made, 


3o8  pompp:ii 

like  that  in  the  house  of  Sallust.  It  is  well  preserved,  and  shows 
an  interesting  peculiarity  of  construction.  When  the  table  was 
not  in  use,  a  jet  of  water  would  spring  from  the  foundation  of 
masonry  supporting  the  round  top.  The  water  was  conveyed 
by  a  lead  pipe,  and  at  the  rear  of  the  colonnade  one  may  still 
see  the  stopcock  by  which  the  flow  was  regulated. 

The  stairway  at  the  left  of  the  small  atrium  (/3)  led  to  rooms 
over  the  front  of  the  house.  Over  the  rooms  at  the  rear,  a  bed- 
room (7),  a  central  room  (S)  taking  the  place  of  the  tablinum, 
and  a  corridor  (e),  was  a  dining  room,  the  front  of  which  was  sup- 
ported by  columns  (p.  275),  the  stairway  being  in  the  corridor; 
fragments  of  the  tufa  columns  are  lying  on  the  floor.  At  the 
back  of  the  house  was  originally  only  the  small  sleeping  room 
(^)  with  a  simple  decoration  in  the  iirst  style,  and  a  colonnade 
(t))  with  Doric  columns  opening  on  the  garden  (k).  Later  the 
colonnade  was  turned  into  an  apartment,  and  two  rooms  were 
built  at  the  left,  a  dining  room  (6)  and  a  bedroom  (t). 

In  the  front  of  one  of  the  rooms  (\)  is  an  unusually  well  pre- 
served niche  for  the  images  of  the  household  gods,  ornamented 
with  stucco  reliefs  and  painted  in  the  last  style.  On  the  rear 
wall  stands  Hercules,  with  the  lion's  skin  hanging  from  his  left 
arm,  his  club  on  the  left  shoulder.  In  his  right  hand  he  holds 
a  large  bowl  above  a  round  altar ;  at  the  left  is  a  hog  ready  to 
be  offered  as  a  victim. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX 

THE  HOUSE   OE  EP/D/US  RUEUS 

The  house  of  Epidius  Rufiis,  built,  like  those  previously  de- 
scribed, in  the  pre-Roman  time,  presents  a  pleasing  example  of 
a  Corinthian  atrium.  In  one  respect  it  resembles  the  oldest 
Pompeian  houses,  such  as  that  of  the  Surgeon  ;  in  the  place  of 
the  peristyle  is  a  garden  extending  back  from  a  colonnade  at 
the  rear  of  the  tablinum.  In  a  period  when  large  peristyles 
were  the  fashion,  a  Pompeian  of  wealth  and  taste,  whose  build- 
ing lot  was  ample  enough  to  admit  of  an  extension  of  his  house 
toward  the  rear,  contented  himself  with  a  single  group  of  rooms 
arranged  about  one  central  apartment. 

The  arrangement  of  rooms  is  seen  at  a  glance  (Fig.  149).  The 
vestibule,  like  that  of  the  principal  entrance  in  the  house  of  the 
Faun,  had  a  triple  door  at  the  end  toward  the  street  (shown  in 
Fig.  150),  which  was  no  doubt  left  open  in  the  daytime.  Enter- 
ing, one  would  pass  into  the  fauces  ordinarily  through  the  small 
door  at  the  right  (p.  248),  the  large  double  doors  between  the 
vestibule  and  the  fauces  only  being  opened  for  the  reception  of 
clients  or  on  special  occasions. 

The  front  of  each  ala  (7,  13)  is  adorned  with  two  Ionic  col- 
umns. At  the  corners  of  the  entrances  are  pilasters,  the  Corin- 
thian capitals  of  which  have  a  striking  ornament,  a  female  head, 
moulded  in  stucco,  looking  out  from  the  midst  of  the  acanthus 
leaves.  The  eyes  and  hair  are  painted,  and  in  one  instance  the 
features  of  a  bacchante  can  be  recognized. 

In  the  right  ala  is  an  elaborate  house  shrine,  built  like  a  tem- 
ple with  a  facade  supported  by  columns,  raised  on  a  podium  five 
feet  high  (Fig.  151).  On  the  front  of  the  podium  is  a  dedicatory 
inscription  to  the  Genius  of  the  master  (p.  270). 

The  tablinum  originally  opened  on  the  atrium  in  its  full  width, 
the  entrance  being  set  off  by  pilasters  at  the  corners.     It  was 

309 


tK 


3IO 


POMPEII 


K 


then  higher;  when  the 
entrance  was  changed 
the  height  was  re- 
duced to  about  twelve 
feet.  The  sixteen 
Doric  cokimns  about 
the  imphivium,  well 
preserved  for  the 
most  part,  are  only  a 
trifle  over  fourteen 
feet  high. 

The  contrast  be- 
tween this  atrium  and 
the  lofty  halls  of  the 
houses  of  Sallust  and 
the  Faun  was  indeed 
marked.  Here  the 
atrium  had  become 
more  like  a  court  than 
a  hall ;  yet  the  im- 
pluvium,  paved  with 
tufa,  was  retained, 
and  we  find  the  same 
arrangement  for  the 
flow  of  water  as  in 
many  houses  with 
Tuscan  and  tetrastyle 
atriums.  On  the  edge 
of  the  imphivium  at 
the  rear  is  the  pedes- 
tal of  a  fountain  fig- 
ure which  threw  a  jet 
into  a  basin  resting 
on  two  rectangular 
standards  ;  the  places 
of  these,  as  well  as 
the  course  of  the  feed 
pipe,  are  indicated  on 


THE    HOUSE    OF   EPH)IUS   RUFUS 


311 


the  plan.  Behind  the  pedestal  is  a  round  cistern  curb  ;  another 
jet  rose  in  the  middle  of  the  inipluvium. 

The  apartment  at  the  right  of  the  tablinum  (20)  was  a  dining 
room.  Of  the  smaller  rooms  about  the  atrium,  three  (6,  8,  and 
12)  were  sleeping  rooms  for  members  of  the  family;  some  of 
the  others  were  so  poorly  decorated  as  to  prompt  the  suggestion 
that  they  were  intended  for  slaves.  That  next  the  stairs  (14) 
was  a  storeroom ;  the  traces  of  the  shelving  are  easily  distin- 
guished. Under  the  stairs  was  a  low  room  (16),  perhaps  used 
for  a  similar  purpose  ;  the  small  double  room  (17)  was  also  low, 
and  used  as  a  sleeping  room. 

The  domestic  apartments  were  reached  by  the  andron  (18). 
In  the  kitchen  (21)  is  a  broad  hearth  (//);  a  dim  light  was  fur- 


..ritlMiili 


Fig.  150.  —  Facade  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus,  restored. 

nished  by  narrow  windows.  The  little  room  at  the  entrance  of 
the  kitchen  (a)  was  perhaps  a  storeroom  ;  the  closet,  as  often, 
w^as  in  the  corner  of  the  kitchen. 

At  the  opposite  end  of  the  colonnade  is  the  gardener's  room 
(23).  The  main  part  of  the  garden  (24),  as  indicated  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  ground,  was  used  for  vegetables ;  the  small 
flower  garden  at  the  rear  (25)  was  on  a  higher  level. 

In  the  house  originally  there  was  no  second  floor.  In  the 
Roman  period,  apparently  near  the  end  of  the  Republic,  a  large 
upper  room  —  probably  a  dining  room  —  was  built  over  the 
kitchen  ;  and  there  may  have  been  one  or  two  small  storerooms 
at  the  head  of  the  stairway  which  was  built  in  one  of  the  side 
rooms  of  the  atrium. 


312 


POMPEII 


Traces  of  the  first  and  third  decorative  styles  are  faimd  in  the 
atrium  ;  but  the  most  interesting^  remains  are  those  of  the  last 
style.  The  alae  and  several  rooms  were  redecorated  shortly 
before  the  destruction  of  the  city.  The  dining  room  (20)  con- 
tains a  series  of  paintings  illustrating  the  contest  between  Apollo 
and  Marsyas ;  they  are  skilfully  displayed  in  a  light  architectu- 
ral framework  on  a  white  ground.  On  the  wall  at  the  left  (at  a) 
Apollo  is  seen  with  left  foot  advanced,  striking  with  his  right 
hand  a  large  cithara  which  rests  against  his  left  shoulder.  Oppo- 
site him  (at  b)  is  Marsyas,  playing  the  double  flute  ;  on  the  inter- 
vening panels  {d,  c)  are  the  Muses,  who  are  acting  as  judges  in 
the  contest  of  skill.  The  painting  at  c  seems  to  relate  to  Apollo, 
but  the  subject  has  not  been  explained.  The  choice  of  subjects 
such  as  these  may  have  been  influenced  by  the  cult  of  the  early 


Ala 


Door  of 
Andron 


H — H 

Front  of 
Tablinum 


Door  of 
Dining  room 


Ala  with 
Shrine 


Fig.  151.  —  Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus,  restored. 

divinity  of  the  city ;  but  it  probably  implies  a  taste  for  poetry 
and  music  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor. 

There  were  no  shops  in  the  front  of  this  house,  but  in  one 
respect  our  restoration  of  the  facade  (Fig.  150)  can  not  be  taken 
as  indicating  the  appearance  of  such  houses  in  general.  Here 
the  front  line  was  set  back  several  feet  from  that  of  the  adjoin- 
ing houses  on  either  side,  and  the  space  thus  gained  was  given 
to  a  terrace  or  ramp  about  four  feet  high,  mounted  by  steps  at 
either  end.  The  elevation  of  the  front  entrance  above  the  side- 
walk and  the  placing  of  the  approaches  at  the  ends  of  the  ramp 
gave  the  house  an  appearance  of  seclusion. 


CHAPTER    XL 

THE  HOUSE   OE   THE   TRAGIC  POET 

I\  the  "  Last  Days  of  Pompeii"  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet 
is  presented  to  us  as  the  home  of  Glaucus.  Though  not  large, 
it  was  among  the  most  attractive  in  the  city.  It  received  its 
present  form  and  decoration  not  many  years  before  the  eruption, 


V\    vl> 


Fig.  152.  —  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 


1.  Fauces. 

2,  2.   Shops. 

3.  Atrium. 

4,  4.    Stairways  to 

upper  floor. 


5.  Porter's  room. 

6.  6.    Sleeping  rooms. 
6'.    Storeroom. 

7.  Ala. 


8.  Tablinum. 

9.  Andron. 

10.  Peristyle. 

11.  House  shrine. 


12,  14.    Sleeping  rooms. 

13.  Kitchen. 

15.  Dining  room. 

16.  Posticum. 


apparently  after  the  earthquake  of  6^,  and  well  illustrates  the 
arrangements  of  the  Pompeian  house  of  the  last  years. 

The  house  received  its  name  at  the  time  of  excavation,  in 
consequence  of  a  curious  misinterpretation  of  a  painting  —  now 
in  the  Naples  Museum  —  which  was  found  in  the  tablinum. 
The  subject  is  the  delivery  to  Admetus  of  the  oracle  which 
declared  that  he  must  die  unless  some  one  should  voluntarily 
meet  death  in  his  place.  On  one  side  sits  Admetus,  with  his 
devoted  queen  Alcestis  ;  opposite  them  is  the  messenger  who  is 

-SI  3 


3M 


POMPEII 


reading  the  oracle  from  a  roll  of  papyrus.  The  excavators 
thought  that  the  scene  represented  a  poet  reciting  his  verses ; 
and  since  they  found,  in  the  floor  of  the  tablinum,  a  mosaic 
picture  in  which  an  actor  is  seen  making  preparations  for  the 
stage,  they  concluded  that  the  figure  with  the  papyrus  in  the 
wall  painting  must  be  a  tragic  poet. 

The    plan  (Fig.    152)  presents  slight    irregularities;    yet   in 
essential  points  the  arrangement  of  rooms  does  not  differ  mate- 


Fiy.  153.  —  \  I'         ;  ;:  '      'mseof  the  Tragic  Poet,  looking  from  the  middle  of  the  atrium 

through  the  tablinum  toward  the  shrine  at  the  end  of  the  peristyle. 
At  the  right,  the  andron.     In  the  foreground,  a  cistern  curb,  at  the  rear  of  the  impluvium. 


rially  from  that  which  we  have  found  in  the  houses  of  the  pre- 
Roman  time.  As  our  section  (Fig.  154)  shows,  all  the  parts  of 
the  house  are  comparatively  low  ;  the  ceiling  of  the  atrium  and 
of  the  large  dining  room  at  the  rear  (15)  were  only  a  few 
feet  higher  than  the  colonnade  of  the  peristyle.  The  entrances 
of  the  ala  —  here  there  is  but  one  —  and  of  the  tablinum  are 
not  adorned  with  pilasters;  plain  wooden  casings  were  used 
instead.     The  second  storv  rooms  are  not  an  afterthought  but 


THE   HOUSE    OF   THE   TRAGIC    POET  315 

a  part  of  the  architect's  design  ;  the  stairways  (4)  leading  to 
them  are  symmetrically  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  atrium.  There 
was  no  upper  floor,  however,  over  the  fauces,  the  atrium,  or  the 
tablinum.  To  a  modern  visitor  this  dwelUng  would  have  seemed 
more  homelike  and  comfortable  than  the  monumental  houses  of 
the  earlier  time. 

The  large  shops  (2)  are  both  connected  with  the  house  by 
doors  opening  into  the  fauces  (i).  They  were  doubtless  the 
proprietor's  place  of  business.  In  one  of  them  gold  orna- 
ments were  found,  but  we  should  scarcely  be  warranted  in 
assuming  from  this  fact  that  the  master  of  the  house  was  a 
goldsmith. 

In  the  floor  of  the  fauces,  immediately  behind  the  double 
front  door,  is  a  dog,  attached  to  a  chain,  outlined  in  black  and 
white  mosaic,  with  the  inscription,  cave  cancni,  '  Beware  of  the 
dog ! '  The  picture  was  for  many  years  in  the  Naples  Museum. 
The  black  and  white  mosaic  is  well  preserved  in  the  atrium,  the 
tablinum  (Fig.  153),  and  the  dining  room  opening  on  the  peri- 
style, as  well  as  in  the  fauces. 

The  purpose  of  the  various  rooms  is  in  most  cases  easy  to 
determine.  The  first  at  the  left  of  the  atrium  (5)  was  the  room 
of  the  porter,  atrirnsis.  The  three  rooms  marked  6  were  sleep- 
ing rooms,  as  were  also  12  and  14  opening  on  the  peristyle; 
6'  was  a  storeroom,  13  the  kitchen.  There  was  a  colonnade  on 
three  sides  of  the  peristyle ;  against  the  wall  at  the  rear  stands 
the  shrine  of  the  household  gods  (seen  in  Fig.  153)  in  which 
was  found  a  marble  statuette  of  a  satyr  carrying  fruits  in  the 
fold  of  a  skin  hanging  in  front  of  him. 

The  decoration  of  the  large  dining  room  (15)  is  especially 
effective.  In  the  front  of  the  room  is  a  broad  door  opening 
into  the  colonnade  of  the  peristyle ;  each  of  the  three  sides  con- 
tains three  panels,  in  the  midst  of  a  light  but  carefully  finished 
architectural  framework.  In  the  central  panels  are  large  paint- 
ings :  at  r,  a  young  couple  looking  at  a  nest  of  Cupids ;  at  q, 
Theseus  going  on  board  ship,  leaving  behind  him  the  beautiful 
Ariadne;  and  at/  a  composition  in  which  Artemis  is  the  prin- 
cipal figure.  In  four  of  the  smaller  panels  are  the  Seasons, 
represented  as  graceful  female  figures  hovering  in  the  air ;  the 


3i6 


POMPEII 


others  present  youthful  warriors  with  hehnet,  shield,  sword,  and 
spear,  all  well  conceived  and  executed  with  much  delicacy. 

The  atrium,  unlike  most  of  those  at  Pompeii,  was  rich  in  wall 
paintings.  Six  panels,  more  than  four  feet  high,  presented  a 
series  of  scenes  from  the  story  of  the  Trojan  war,  as  told  in  the 
"  Iliad."  These  were  united  with  the  decorative  framework  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  a  harmonious  and  pleasing  whole  ;  the 
main  divisions  of  the  right  wall  of  the  atrium,  as  well  as  of  the 
fauces  and  tabhnum,  are  indicated  in  Fig.  154. 

In  arranging  the  pictures,  the  decorators  had  little  regard  for 
the  order  of  events.  The  subjects  were  the  Nuptials  of  Zeus 
and  Hera  (at  a  on  the  plan);  the  judgment  of  Paris  {b)  — 
though  this  is  doubtful,  as  the   picture  is  now  entirely  obliter- 


Iiiipluvium     Stairs 
Atrium 


Fauces 


Large  dining  room     Kitchen       Tablinum  A 

Peristyle 

Fig.  154.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  restored. 


ated ;  the  delivery  of  Briseis  to  the  messenger  of  Agamemnon 
(r) ;  the  departure  of  Chryseis  {d),  and  seemingly  Thetis  bring- 
ing arms  across  the  sea  to  Achilles  (/).  Of  the  painting  at  e 
only  a  fragment  remained,  too  small  to  make  it  possible  to  rec- 
ognize the  subject.  The  fragment  at  f,  in  which  were  seen  a 
Triton,  two  figures  riding  on  a  sea  horse,  and  a  Cupid  on  a 
dolphin,  is  now  entirely  faded.  Half  of  the  painting  in  which 
Chryseis  appears  was  already  ruined  at  the  time  of  excavation  ; 
the  other  half  was  transferred  to  the  Naples  Museum,  together 
with  the  paintings  that  were  best  preserved,  the  Nuptials  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  and  the  sending  away  of  Briseis. 

The  two  pictures  last  mentioned  are  among  the  best  known 
of  the  Pompeian  paintings,  and  have  often  been  reproduced.  In 
one  (Fig.  273)  we  see  Zeus  sitting  at  the  right,  while  Hypnos 
presents  to  him  Hera,  whose  left  wrist  he  gently  grasps  in  his 


I 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE   TRAGIC    POET 


317 


right  hand  as  if  to  draw  her  to  him.  Hera  seems  halt  reluc- 
tant, and  her  face,  which  the  artist,  in  order  to  enhance  the 
effect,  has  directed  toward  the  beholder  rather  than  toward 
Zeus,  is  queenly  in  its  majesty  and  power.  The  scene  is 
located  on  Mt.  Ida.  In  the  background  stands  a  pillar,  on 
which  are  three  small  figures  of  lions ;  below  at  the  side  are 
two  pipes,  cymbals,  and  a  tambourine,  all  sacred  to  the  potent 


Fig.  155.  —  The  sending  away  of  Briseis. 
Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 


divinity  of  Mt.  Ida,  Cybele.  Three  youths,  crowned  with  gar- 
lands, appear  in  the  lower  right  hand  corner  of  the  picture  ; 
they  are  perhaps  the  Dactyli,  demons  skilled  in  the  working  of 
metals  who  followed  in  the  train  of  Cybele. 

A  higher  degree  of  dramatic   interest  is   manifested  in  the 
other  painting,  which  we  present  in  outline  (Fig.  155).     In  the 


3i8  POMPEII 

foreground  at  the  right,  Patrockis  leads  forward  the  weeping 
Briseis.  In  the  middle  Achilles,  seated,  looks  toward  Patroclus 
with  an  expression  of  anger,  and  with  an  impatient  gesture  of 
the  right  hand  directs  him  to  deliver  up  the  beautiful  captive 
to  the  messenger  of  Agamemnon,  who  stands  at  the  left  wait- 
ing to  receive  her.  Behind  Achilles  is  Phoenix,  his  faithful 
companion,  who  tries  to  soften  his  anger  with  comforting  words. 
Further  back  the  helmeted  heads  of  warriors  are  seen,  and  at 
the  rear  the  tent  of  Achilles. 

The  scene  is  well  conceived.  Yet  in  both  this  picture  and 
the  one  previously  described,  the  composition  seems  to  lack 
depth  and  perspective.  The  artist  is  remarkably  skilful  in 
portraying  facial  expression,  and  foreground  details ;  his  limita- 
tions are  apparent  in  the  handling  of  groups.  We  have  the 
feeling  that  the  first  designs  were  not  made  freely  with  brush  or 
pencil,  but  that  the  artist  was  here  translating  into  painting 
designs  which  he  found  already  worked  out  in  reliefs.  The 
original  paintings,  of  which  these  are  copies,  very  likely  go 
back  to  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Another  painting  worthy  of  more  than  passing  mention  was 
found  on  a  wall  of  the  peristyle  (at  o),  and  removed  to  the 
Naples  Museum.  The  subject  is  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia, 
who  was  to  be  offered  up  to  Artemis  that  a  favorable  departure 
from  Aulis  might  be  granted  to  the  Greek  fleet  assembled  for 
the  expedition  against  Troy  (Fig.  156). 

At  the  right  stands  Calchas,  deeply  troubled,  his  sheath  in 
his  left  hand,  his  unsheathed  sword  in  his  right,  his  finger  upon 
his  lips.  The  hapless  maid  with  arms  outstretched  in  supplica- 
tion is  held  by  two  men,  one  of  whom  is  perhaps  Ulysses.  At 
the  left  is  Agamemnon,  with  face  averted  and  veiled  head,  over- 
come with  grief.  Beside  him  leans  his  sceptre,  and  on  a  pillar 
near  by  we  see  an  archaic  statue  of  Artemis  with  a  torch  in 
each  hand,  a  dog  on  either  side.  Just  as  the  girl  is  to  be  slain, 
Artemis  appears  in  the  sky  at  the  right,  and  from  the  clouds 
opposite  a  nymph  emerges  bringing  a  deer,  which  the  goddess 
accepts  as  a  substitute. 

In  this  painting,  also,  though  the  style  is  entirely  different 
from  that  of  the  others,  we  perceive  the  limitations  of  the  artist 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE   TRAGIC    POET 


3^9 


in  the  treatment  of  the  background.  Nevertheless  the  bold- 
ness of  the  conception,  and  the  skill  manifested  in  the  handling 
of  several  of  the  figures,  seem  to  point  to  an  original  of  more 
than  ordinary  merit. 


Fisr.  is6.  —  The  sacrifit 


■t  Ipl.i. 


Not  far  from  400  b.c.  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia  was  made 
the  subject  of  a  painting  by  Timanthes,  in  which  the  maiden 
was  represented  as  standing  beside  the  altar.  We  are  told  that 
the  artist  painted  Calchas  sorrowful,  Ulysses  more  sorrowful, 
Ajax  lamenting,  and  Menelaus  in  sorrow  so  deep  that  deeper 
sorrow  could  not  be  expressed  ;  finding  it  impossible  to  portray 
the  grief  of  the  father,  Agamemnon,  Timanthes  represented 
him  with  veiled  head. 


320  POMPEII 

The  veiled  Agamemnon  appears  in  our  painting,  and  the  fig- 
ure of  Calchas  perhaps  reflects  the  conception  of  Timanthes. 
For  the  rest,  it  is  difficult  to  establish  a  relation  between  the 
two  pictures ;  even  if  we  did  not  know  that  Iphigenia,  in  the 
painting  of  Timanthes,  stood  beside  an  altar,  we  could  scarcely 
believe  that  a  great  painter  would  have  represented  her  thus 
awkwardly  carried.  Undoubtedly  the  Pompeian  painting,  or  its 
original,  is  indebted  to  the  masterpiece  of  the  Greek  artist ; 
but  the  decorative  painter  has  adapted  this  to  suit  his  pur- 
pose, omitting  the  figures,  the  facial  expression  of  which  was 
most  difficult  to  reproduce,  and  at  the  same  time  attempting  to 
heighten  the  effect  by  making  more  prominent  the  helplessness 
and  terror  of  the  victim. 


CHAPTER    XLI 

THE  HOUSE   OF  THE    VETTH 

The  house  of  the  Vettii,  excavated  in  the  years  1 894-1 895, 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  other  houses  built  in  the  Roman 
period  that  the  house  of  the  Faun  does  to  those  of  the  earlier 


Vj^  yv   1^6] 


Fig.  157.  —  Exterior  of  the  houi^e  ot  the  Vettii,  restored. 

time  ;  it  is  the  most  important  representative  of  its  class.  It 
was  situated  in  a  quiet  part  of  the  city,  and  was  not  conspicuous 
by  reason  of  its  size  ;  its  interest  for  us  lies  chiefly  in  its  paint- 
ings and  in  the  adornment  of  the  well  preserved  peristyle. 

The  relationship  between  the  two  owners,  Aulus  Vettius 
Restitutus  and  Aulus  Vettius  Conviva  (p.  508)  is  not  known. 
They  were  perhaps  freedmen,  manumitted  by  the  same  master  ; 

321 


322 


POMPEII 


Conviva,  as  we  learn  from  a  painted  inscription,  was  a  member  cf 
the  Brotlierhood  of  Augustus, —  Vetti  Conviva,  Angustal\is\. 
The  exterior  of  the  house  (Fig.  157)  was  unpretentious.  The 
main  entrance  was  on  the  east  side,  and  there  was  a  side  door 
near  the  southeast  corner ;  elsewhere  the  street  walls  were  un- 
broken except  by  small, 
square  windows,  part 
of  which  were  in  low 
second  story  rooms. 

The  vestibule  (Fig. 
158,  a),  as  in  the  house 
of  Epidius  Rufus  (p. 
248),  was  connected 
with  the  fauces  {b)  by 
a  large  double  door  and 
also  by  a  small  door  at 
the  right.  The  atrium 
(r)  is  without  a  tabli- 
num  ;  at  the  rear  it 
opens  directly  on  the 
peristyle.  One  of  the 
alae  {h)  at  the  time  of 
the  eruption  was  used 
as  a  wardrobe.  At  the 
sides  of  the  atrium  were 
two  money  chests  ;  the 
one  at  the  right  is  seen 
in  Fig.  159. 

Opening  on  the  peri- 
style   are    three    large 
apartments  (;/,  /,  q),  and  two  smaller  rooms  {0,  r).     A  door  at 
the  right  leads  into  a  small  side  peristyle  {s,  shown  in  Fig.  160), 
with  a  quiet  dining  room  (/)  and  bedroom  (//). 

The  domestic  apartments  were  near  the  front  of  the  house. 
At  the  right  of  the  principal  atrium  is  a  small  side  atrium  (:) 
without  a  separate  street  entrance.  Grouped  about  it  were 
rooms  for  the  slaves  and  the  kitchen  {iv)  with  a  large  hearth 
(Fig.    125).     Beyond  the  kitchen  is  a  room  for  the  cook  (.r'). 


b. 


r 

Fig.  158. —  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii 

Vestibule 

Fauces. 
c.  Atrium. 
h,  i.     Alae. 

/.      Colonnade  of  the  peristyle. 
>«.    Garden. 
n,p.    Dining  rooms. 
g.     Room  with  the  Cupids  and 
P.syches. 


Small  peristyle. 
Dining  room. 
Bedroom. 
Side  atrium. 
Kitchen. 
Cook's  room. 

Corridor    leading    to    side 
rooms  0, 6)and  posticum. 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE   VETTH  323 

At  the  rear  of  the  small  atrium  is  the  niche  for  the  household 
gods  (Fig.  127). 

The  corridor  at  the  left  of  the  principal  atrium  (7;  led  to  an 
unimportant  room  (/3)  with  a  door  opening  on  a  side  street.  In 
this  corridor  there  was  a  stairway  to  the  second  story,  which 
extended  over  this  corner  of  the  house  (above  r, /,  //,  n,  o,  /3,  h). 
Along  the  front  also  were  low  chambers,  over  the  fauces  and 
the  small  rooms  on  either  side  {d,  k),  and  over  the  rooms  adjoin- 
ing the  small  atrium  {x,  j',  ^). 

In  the  accompanying  sections  two  restorations  of  the  interior 
are  given.  In  the  first  (Fig.  159)  we  are  looking  toward  the 
right  side  of  the  atrium  and  the  inner  end  of  the  peristyle  ; 
the  depth  of  the  peristyle  more  than  equals  that  of  the  atrium, 
together  with  the  vestibule  and  fauces.  The  difference  in 
height  between  the  atrium  and  the  peristyle,  as  in  the  house 
of  the  Tragic  Poet,  is  much  less  than  in  the  houses  built  in  the 
pre-Roman  period;  and  the  corners  of  the  alae  were  protected 
by  simple  wooden  casings,  altogether  unlike  the  stately  pilas- 
ters of  the  olden  time. 

The  transverse  section  (Fig.  160)  presents  the  long  side  of  the 
peristyle  next  to  the  atrium,  with  the  side  of  the  small  peristyle 
at  the  north  end.  The  extent  of  the  house  is  greater  measured 
across  the  two  peristyles  (along  the  line  C-D  on  the  plan)  than 
from  front  to  rear.  Of  the  three  entrances  from  the  atrium 
into  the  peristyle,  that  in  the  middle  is  broader  and  higher 
than  the  other  two,  which  are  not  much  wider  than  ordinary 
doors ;  the  arrangement  of  the  openings  is  similar  to  that  in 
houses  having  a  tablinum  open  toward  the  peristyle  with  an 
andron  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  a  room  with  a  door  cor- 
responding with  the  door  of  the  andron. 

The  columns  of  the  peristyle  are  well  preserved  (Fig.  161). 
They  are  white,  with  ornate  capitals  moulded  in  stucco  and 
painted  with  a  variety  of  colors.  Part  of  the  entablature  also 
remains  ;  the  architrave  is  ornamented  with  an  acanthus  ara- 
besque in  white  stucco  relief  on  a  yellow  background. 

The  roof  of  the  greater  part  of  the  colonnade  has  been 
restored,  and  the  garden  has  been  planted  with  shrubs  in 
accordance  with  the  arrangement  indicated  by  the  appearance 


324 


POMPEII 


of  the  ground  at  the  time  of  excavation.  Nowhere  else  in 
Pompeii  will  the  visitor  so  easily  gain  an  impression  of  the 
aspect  presented  by  a  peristyle  in   ancient   times.     The    main 


"  1       ' 


Cu'.ouuade  (I) 


Large  room  iq) 
Garden  with  fountains  and  sculptures  im) 
Peristyle 


Fig.  159. —  Longitudinal  section 


part  of  the  house  was  searched  for  objects  of  value  after  the 
eruption,  but  the  garden  was  left  undisturbed,  and  we  see  in 


—  I 


Small    peristyle  (. 


End  of  small     End  of  dining  room  (;>)  Window  in 

dining  room  Colonnade         right  ala(i) 

Fig.  160.  —  Transverse  section  of  the  house  of  the 


it  to-day  the  fountain  basins,  statuettes,  and  other   sculptures 
placed  there  by  the  proprietor. 

In  each  corner  of  the  colonnade  is  a  round   fountain  basin 


I 


THh:    HOUSE    OF   THE    VEITH 


325 


(indicated  on  the  plan),  at  each  side  an  oblong  basin,  all  of 
marble.  Jets  fell  into  them  from  statuettes  standing  on  pedes- 
tals beside  the  columns ;  there  were  two  figures  for  each  side 


onnade(0  Ala  (0  Inipluvium      ^"""7  """I"'       Fauc-sIM' 

Atrium  '^''^'^         side  atrium  Vestibule  (n) 

ot  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  restored. 


basin,  one  each  for  those  at  the  corners.     The  two  statuettes 
at    the   inner   end  of  the  colonnade  (Fig.    162)  are  of  bronze; 


Openings  into  the  atrium 

Large    peristyle 

Vettii,  restored,  showing  the  two  peristyles. 


End  of  dining 
room  ill) 


Door  if  room  (o) 
Colonnade 


they  represent  a  boy  with  a  duck,  from  the  bill  of  which  the 
water  spurted.  The  rest  are  of  marble,  and  not  of  special 
interest.     Among  them  are  a  Bacchus  and   two    satyrs.     The 


326 


POMPEII 


water  pipes  were  so  well  preserved  that  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  place  them  in  repair,  and  they  are  now  ready  for 
use      There  were  also  two  fountains  in  the  garden. 

Near  the  middle  of  the  garden  is  a  round,  marble  table.  Three 
others  stand  under  the  colonnade,  one  of  which,  at  the  right 
near  the  inner  end,  is  particularly  elegant.     The  three  feet  are 


Fig.  i6i. —  Base,  capital,  and  section  of  the  entablature  from  the  colonnade 
of  the  peristyle. 


carved  to  represent  lions'  claws ;  the  heads  above  are  well  exe- 
cuted, and  there  are  traces  of  yellow  color  on  the  manes.  On 
two  pillars  in  the  garden  are  double  busts,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  bacchic  cycle.  One  represents  Bacchus  and 
a  bacchante  (Fig.  257),  the  other  Bacchus  and  Ariadne;  there 
are  traces  of  painting  on  the  hair,  beard,  and  eyes. 

The  wall  paintings  of  this  house  are  the  most  remarkable  yet 


THE    HOUSE   OF    THE    \Errn 


327 


discovered  at  Pompeii.  Although  the  decoration  of  which  they 
form  a  part  is  throughout  of  the  fourth  style,  they  fall  into  two 
groups,  an  earlier  and  a  later,  distinguished  by  differences  in 
composition  and  handling  that  are  easily  perceived. 

The  earlier  paintings  are  found  in  the  atrium  {c),  the  alae 
(//,  /),  and  the  large  room  at  the  end  of  the  peristyle  {q).  At 
the  time  when  they  were  painted  the  left  ala  {/i)  was  connected 
with  the  room  behind  it  (;/)  by  a  door,  and  had  a  large  window 


Fig.  162.  —  Peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  looking  soutli  hum  the  colonnade 
at  the  north  end. 


opening  on  the  peristyle  like  that  in  the  other  ala  (seen  in  Fig. 
160).  Afterwards  both  window  and  door  were  walled  up  and 
the  ala  was  turned  into  a  wardrobe.  After  this  change  had 
been  made,  as  the  remains  of  the  masonry  show,  the  earthquake 
of  63  threw  down  a  part  of  the  wall  between  the  ala  and  the 
peristyle.  The  earlier  paintings,  then,  must  have  been  placed 
upon  the  walls  before  the  year  63,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  or 
the  earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero. 

The  later  pictures  are  on  the  walls  of  the  fauces  {b'),  the  large 
apartment  at  the  left  of  the  atrium  {e),  the  colonnade  of  the 


32g  POMPEII 

peristyle  (/),  the  two  dining  rooms  opening  on  the  peristyle 
{n,  p),  and  the  small  peristyle  (jt)  with  the  adjoining  rooms  (/,  it); 
to  the  same  class  belongs  also  the  painting  of  the  Genius  with 
the  Lares  in  the  side  atrium  {v),  which,  aside  from  this,  con- 
tains no  pictures.  The  remaining  rooms  present  nothing  of 
interest. 

The  paintings  of  the  first  group  are  characterized  by  refine- 
ment in  the  choice  of  subjects,  fertility  in  the  composition,  firm- 
ness of  touch  in  the  drawing,  and  exquisite  finish  in  even  the 
smallest  details.  The  colors  used  are  simple  and  harmonious, 
violent  contrasts  being  avoided.  A  number  of  these  pictures 
show  the  hand  of  a  true  artist,  whose  work  has  been  found  in 
no  other  house,  and  the  system  of  decoration  is  the  most  ef- 
fective of  its  kind  in  Pompeii. 

The  decoration  of  the  walls  painted  after  the  earthquake  is 
not  unlike  that  found  in  other  houses  upon  walls  of  the  fourth 
style.  The  designs  are  sketchy  and  without  painstaking  in  the 
handling  of  details  ;  the  lines  are  coarse,  the  colors  sometimes 
crude.  The  pictures  in  the  panels  are  by  different  painters, 
some  of  whom  were  not  without  skill,  yet  none  far  above  the 
average.  One  of  the  decorators  had  a  fondness  for  represent- 
ing mythological  death  scenes,  manifesting  a  taste  little  short 
of  barbarous. 

The  contrast  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  decoration  is  so 
marked  that  it  seems  impossible  to  explain  except  on  the  assump- 
tion of  a  change  of  owners.  We  may  well  believe  that  about 
the  middle  of  the  first  century  this  was  the  home  of  a  family  of 
culture  and  standing,  who  secured  for  the  decoration  of  it  the 
best  artist  that  could  be  obtained,  bringing  him  perhaps  from 
Rome  or  from  a  Greek  city.  But  within  a  score  of  years  after- 
wards the  house  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Vettii,  freedmen, 
perhaps,  whose  taste  in  matters  of  art  was  far  inferior  to  that  of 
the  former  occupants,  and  a  number  of  rooms  were  redecorated. 

The  excellent  preservation  of  a  large  part  of  both  the  earlier 
and  the  later  decoration  gives  the  house  the  appearance  of  an 
art  gallery.  To  describe  fully  and  interpret  all  the  paintings 
would  require  a  small  volume.  The  limitations  of  space  make 
it  possible  to  present  here  only  the  more  important ;  we  com- 


mXM 

.     ':^i^\.ifli?"''^|^^^'    '^ 

.\"  • -^./\  3^, ' 

^            ..          ^                                                                                    '     ■''               '-■-■.■1 

Apollo  after  the  slaying  of  the  Dragon 


Agamemnon  in  the  Shrine  of  Artemis 
PLATE   VIII.— TWO  WALL    PAINTINGS  IN   THE    HOUSE   OF   THE  VETTII 


I 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE   VETTH 


329 


^iKmMM.i^**a«.fc 


El 


H 


Fig.  163. — Scheme  of  wall  division 
in  the  large  room  opening  on 
the  peristyle. 


mence  with  those  in  the  large  room  at  the  right  of  the  peristyle, 
which  are  the  most  interesting  of  the  entire  series. 

This  apartment  {q)  may  have  been  used  either  as  a  dining 
room  or  as  a  sitting  room.     The  scheme  of  decoration  is  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  163,  which  presents  the 
division   of   the    end  wall ;    the  side 
walls  had  five  large  panels  instead  of 
three. 

The  ground  of  the  base  is  black. 
The  stripe  separating  the  base  from 
the  main  part  of  the  wall  is  red,  ex- 
cept the  small  sections  (4,  4),  which 
have  a  black  ground ;  the  vertical 
stripes  between  the  panels  are  black, 
and  the  same  color  forms  the  back- 
ground of  the  border  above.  The 
ground  of  the  panels  is  cinnabar  red. 

The  painting  in  the  central  panel  ( i )  has  not  been  preserved  ;  in 
those  at  the  sides  (2)  are  floating  figures.  The  upper  division 
of  the  wall  (6)  is  filled  with  an  architectural  framework  upon 
a  white  background,  against  which  many  figures,  skilfully  dis- 
posed, stand  out  with  unusual  distinctness. 

The  floating  figures  in  the  side  panels  differ  from  those  found 
elsewhere  in  the  choice  of  subjects.  Here  instead  of  satyrs  and 
bacchantes  we  find  gods  and  heroes.  In  one  panel  is  Poseidon 
with  a  female  figure,  perhaps  Amymone  ;  in  another,  Apollo  with 
Daphne.  Bacchus  and  Ariadne  also  appear,  and  Perseus  with 
Andromeda. 

The  figures  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  at  the  end  of  the 
room  belong  to  the  bacchic  cycle,  —  Silenus,  satyrs,  and  bac- 
chantes. Of  those  at  the  sides,  one,  near  the  right-hand  corner, 
represents  a  poet  with  a  roll  of  papyrus  against  his  chin,  the 
open  manuscript  case,  sciiuinui,  at  his  feet ;  opposite  him  sits  a 
maiden  clothed  in  white,  drinking  in  his  words.  A  comic  mask 
on  the  left  wall  seems  to  suggest  a  writer  of  comedy,  and  the 
scene  reminds  one  of  the  letter  of  Glycera  to  Menander,  in 
Alciphron :  "  What  is  Athens  without  Menander,  what  Menander 
without  Glycera  .'*    Without  me,  who  make  ready  your  masks,  who 


330 


POMPEII 


lay  out  your  costume,  and  then  stand  behind  the  scenes  pressing 
my  finger  tips  into  the  pahns  of  my  hands  till  the  applause  breaks 
forth.  Then  all  a-trembling  I  breathe  again,  and  enfold  you, 
godlike  poet,  in  my  arms." 

The  figures  in  which  we  are  specially  interested,  however,  are 
not  those  in  the  upper  or  middle  division  of  the  wall,  but  those 
in  the  black  stripes  (3),  nine  and  ten  inches  wide,  under  the 
panels,  in  the  narrow  sections  (4)  and  in  the  corresponding 
sections  of  the  base. 

In  each  of  the  sections  at  the  bottom  is  a  standing  figure.  In 
those  of  the  end  wall  (5)  are  a  satyr  and  a  bacchante;  in  the 
two  nearest  the  middle  of  each  side  wall  are  Amazons,  in  the 
rest  female  figures  with  implements  of  sacrifice.     The  Amazons, 


Fig.  164. —  Psyches  gathering  flowers. 
Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 


armed  with  battle-axe  and  shield,  are  full  of  life  ;  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  colors  of  their  mantles  and  their  Phrygian  caps. 

In  the  narrow  sections  on  the  end  walls  (4),  and  all  but  four 
of  the  others,  were  Psyches  gathering  flowers.  Only  a  part  of 
the  scenes  are  preserved ;  in  each  are  three  figures,  grouped 
with  a  pleasing  variety  and  rendered  with  singular  delicacy  of 
touch.  In  one,  the  Psyches  are  sprightly  children  (Fig.  164); 
in  another,  young  girls ;  and  in  a  third  we  see  a  lady  sitting  at 
ease  and  plucking  the  flowers  close  at  hand,  while  two  maids 
gather  the  blossoms  beyond  her  reach. 

The  two  narrow  sections  nearest  the  middle  panel  of  each 
side  wall  contained  mythological  scenes,  of  which  three  are  pre- 
served. The  subjects  are  taken  from  the  cycle  of  myths  relating 
to  Apollo  and  Artemis.     In  one  of  the  pictures  both  the  divini- 


THK    HOUSE   OF   THE   VETTH  331 

ties  appear.  Apollo  has  just  slain  the  Python,  which  lies  coiled 
about  the  Omphalos,  the  sacred  symbol  of  the  god  as  the  giver 
of  oracles  at  Delphi.  His  bow  and  quiver  are  hanging  upon  a 
column  in  the  background,  and  he  moves  forward  with  vigorous 
step  singing  the  Paean  with  an  accompaniment  upon  the  cithara. 
At  the  right,  Artemis,  with  a  quiver  and  long  hunting  spear, 
leans  upon  a  pillar  looking  at  her  brother.  Nearer  the  Omphalos 
are  a  priest  and  a  female  attendant,  with  a  bull  intended  for 
sacrifice ;  the  relation  of  these  to  the  rest  of  the  scene  is  not 
clear  (Plate  VIII.). 

The  companion  picture  takes  us  to  a  sanctuary  dedicated  to 
Artemis.  At  the  left  a  gilt  bronze  image  of  the  goddess,  in 
hunting  costume,  stands  upon  a  pillar,  to  the  side  of  which  a 
bow,  quiver,  and  boar's  head  are  fastened.  On  one  side  of  the 
round  altar  in  the  middle  is  a  white  hind,  sacred  to  the  goddess ; 
on  the  other,  moving  toward  it  with  a  sword  in  the  uplifted  right 
hand,  is  a  kingly  figure,  the  face  turned  with  a  wild  and  threat- 
ening look  toward  a  frightened  attendant ;  another  attendant, 
back  of  the  hind,  seems  not  yet  to  have  noticed  the  sacrilegious 
intruder.  The  composition  is  full  of  dramatic  power;  the  sub- 
ject can  be  none  other  than  the  slaying  of  the  hind  of  Artemis 
by  the  impious  Agamemnon  (Plate  VIII.). 

The  third  of  these  small  paintings  presents  a  scene  not  infre- 
quently met  with  on  Pompeian  walls,  Orestes  and  Pylades  at 
Tauris  in  the  presence  of  King  Thoas,  and  of  Iphigenia,  who  is 
now  a  priestess  of  Artemis.  The  conception  is  akin  to  that  of 
the  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Citharist  (Fig.  182),  but  the 
picture  is  partially  obliterated. 

The  long  stripe  below  the  panels  is  preserved  in  more  than 
half  its  length,  on  the  end  wall  (3),  on  that  at  the  right,  and  on 
the  short  sections  of  the  front  wall ;  there  is  also  a  fragment  on 
the  left  side.  It  contains  a  series  of  charming  pictures  repre- 
senting Cupids  and  Psyches.  Some  of  the  little  creatures  are 
engaged  in  sports,  others  are  celebrating  a  festival,  while  others 
still  are  busying  themselves  with  the  manifold  work  of  everyday 
life.  The  execution  is  less  careful  than  in  the  small  mythological 
pictures ;  yet  the  figures  are  so  full  of  life,  their  movements  are 
so  purposeful,  and  their  bearing  so  suggestive  that  we  seem  to 


33^  POMPEII 

catch  the  expression  of  the  tiny  faces.  The  Cupids  and  Psyches, 
whether  playing  the  part  of  children  or  of  men  and  women  in 
elegant  attire,  whether  garland  makers  or  vinedressers  or  smiths, 
are  always  Cupids  and  Psyches  still ;  we  instinctively  recognize 
them  as  such,  not  by  reason  of  outward  attributes  so  much  as 
by  their  bearing.  Prosaic  daily  toil  has  nowhere  been  more 
happily  idealized. 

The  Cupids  at  the  left  of  the  entrance  are  playing  with  a 
duck.  One  holds  the  duck  under  his  arm  ready  to  let  it  go ; 
the  other  stretches  out  his  hands  to  catch  it  as  it  tries  to  escape. 
The  group  on  the  other  side  are  throwing  at  a  wooden  mark. 


Fig.  165.  —  Cupids  making 
Wall  painting  in  the 

One  is  setting  up  the  target.  Two  are  making  ready  to  throw, 
one  of  them  being  mounted  on  the  back  of  a  companion;  the 
successful  contestant  in  such  games  was  called  "  the  king,"  the 
loser,  "the  ass,"  because  he  had  to  carry  the  others  upon  his 
back.  A  fifth  stands  ruefully  beside  the  target,  awaiting  his 
turn  to  carry  the  victor. 

Among  the  most  attractive  groups  are  those  of  the  flower 
dealers,  at  the  end  of  the  right  wall  near  the  entrance.  First 
we  see  the  gardener  leading  to  market  a  goat  laden  with  roses ; 
his  little  son  trudges  along  behind  the  animal,  carrying  a  basket 
of  roses  suspended  from  a  stick  on  the  left  shoulder.  Next  is 
the  dealer,  who  stands  behind  a  broad  marble  table  covered 
with  garlands;  he  is  handing  two  to  a  youth  who  already  has 


THE    HOUSE   OF   THE   VE^rTH 


333 


several,  while  a  Psyche  near  by  is  placing  the  garlands  in  a 
basket.  Beyond  these,  workmen  are  making  garlands,  which 
hang  in  profusion  from  a  wooden  frame.  At  the  extreme  left 
is  a  lady  asking  the  price.  One  of  the  workmen  holds  up 
two  fingers,  signifying  two  asses.  The  price  of  a  wreath  is 
given  in  a  graffito  as  three  asses  (p.  497). 

In  the  following  scene  Cupids  appear  as  makers  and  sellers 
of  oil  (Fig.  165).  At  the  right  is  the  oil  press.  It  stands  upon 
a  square  stone,  the  upper  surface  of  which  contains  a  semicir- 
cular incision  to  catch  the  oil  and  carry  it  to  a  round  vessel  stand- 
ing in  front.     The  two  sides,  each  with  a  broad  vertical  opening. 


-  / 

m 

i 

and  selling  oil. 
house  of  the  Vettii. 


are  securely  fastened  by  a  crosspiece  at  the  top.  The  ends  of 
four  horizontal  boards  are  fitted  to  the  openings,  in  which  they 
move  up  and  down.  The  olives  are 
placed  under  the  lowest  board  ;  in  the 
spaces  between  the  others,  and  be- 
tween the  upper  board  and  the  cross- 
piece,  thick  wooden  wedges  are  driven. 
As  the  workmen  drive  in  the  wedges 
with  heavy  mallets,  the  pressure  upon 
the  olives  is  increased,  and  the  oil  is 
forced  out.  The  arrangement  may 
be  more  plainly  seen  in  Fig.  166,  from 
a  wall  painting  at  Herculaneum,  in  which  a  similar  press  appears 


Fig.  166. —  Oil  press.     Fiom  a  wall 
painting  found  at  Herculaneum. 


334 


POMPEII 


At  the  left  of  the  press  is  a  large  kettle  resting  on  a  tripod. 
The  oil  is  being  stirred  as  it  is  heated  ;  a  similar  kettle  appears 
in  the  scene  in  a  shop  presented  in  the  other  part  of  the  picture. 
Further  on  are  two  figures  beside  a  deep  vessel,  but  the  process 
represented  is  not  clear. 

The  rest  of  the  picture  relates  to  the  selling  of  oil.  In  the 
background  is  a  cupboard,  with  a  statuette  —  possibly  an  Aphro- 
dite—  on  the  upper  shelf.  In  front  is  an  open  chest  resting 
on  four  legs.  Both  the  cupboard  and  the  box  contain  bottles 
and  jars  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  for  holding  oil ;  a  Cupid 


Fig.  167.  —  Cupids 
Wall  painting  in  the 


has  just  taken  one  up.  On  the  top  of  the  chest  is  a  roll  of 
papyrus  with  a  pair  of  scales ;  oil  was  sold  by  weight.  A 
memorandum  on  the  wall  of  an  adjoining  house  reads  :  XIII. 
K.  Fe.  oli.  p.  DCCCXXXX,  —  *  January  20,  840  pounds  of  oil.' 

The  central  figure  of  the  group  at  the  left  is  the  lady  who  has 
come  to  make  a  purchase.  A  cushioned  seat  has  been  placed 
for  her,  with  a  footstool ;  the  maid  stands  motionless  behind,  a 
large  fan  resting  on  the  right  shoulder.  The  proprietor  holds 
in  his  right  hand  a  spoon  containing  a  sample  which  he  has  just 
taken  from  the  jar  under  his  arm ;  the  lady  seems  to  be  testing 
the  quality  on  the  back  of  her  wrist.  The  article  sold  is  doubt- 
less the  fine  perfumed  oil,  not  the  common  variety. 


THE   HOUSE    OF   THE   VETTH 


335 


Hardly  less  animated  are  the  scenes  in  which  Cupids  take 
the  place  of  goldsmiths  (Fig.  167).  At  the  right  is  the  furnace, 
adorned  with  the  head  of  Hephaestus,  the  patron  divinity  of 
workers  in  metals.  In  front  is  a  Cupid  with  a  blowpipe  and 
pincers.  Behind  it  another  is  working  with  a  graver's  tool  upon 
a  large  gold  vessel.  The  pose,  suggesting  at  the  same  time 
exertion  and  perfect  steadiness,  is  rendered  with  remarkable 
skill. 

Next  is  a  figure  at  a  small  anvil;  then  the  counter  for  the  sale 
of  jewellery,  which  is  displayed  in  three   open   drawers.      Be- 


"^"           .                                                                                                  ■  '    ■■  4^              '      '             .  -     "    '      >,  -     ■ 

.-::••■ 

m' 

*<                         .    .    ,  ■                '  ■  .■■ 

as  goldsmiths, 
house  of  the  Vettii. 


hind  the  case  containing  the  drawers  a  large  and  a  smaller  pair 
of  scales  are  seen. 

The  first  two  figures  in  the  other  half  of  the  picture  represent 
a  lady  purchaser,  seated,  and  the  proprietor,  who  weighs  out 
an  object  with  a  small  pair  of  scales.  The  left  hands  of  both 
point  to  the  balance  ;  they  are  deeply  interested  in  the  weigh- 
ing. Lastly,  we  see  two  figures  at  an  anvil.  Nothing  could  be 
more  natural  than  the  pose  of  the  one  at  the  left,  holding  the 
metal  upon  the  anvil  for  his  companion  to  strike,  yet  drawing 
back  as  far  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  the  sparks. 

The  processes  of  the  fullery  also  are  illustrated,  —  treading 
the  clothes  in  vats,  carding,  inspection  of  the  cloth  to  see  if  the 


336  POMPEII 

work  is  properly  done,  and  folding  the  finished  garments  for 
delivery  to  the  owners. 

Three  of  the  pictures  —  two  on  the  end  wall  and  one  on  the 
left  side  —  relate  to  wine. 

The  first  is  a  vintage  scene  (Fig.  i68),  of  which  only  a  part 
is  distinct.  At  the  left  is  a  Cupid  gathering  grapes,  from  vines 
trained  to  run  from  tree  to  tree.  The  press  is  worked  on  a 
different  principle  from  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  165.  Here  two 
Cupids  are  turning  a  windlass  by  means  of  long  levers.  The 
windlass  is  connected  by  a  pulley  with  a  press  beam  above;  as 
the  end  of  this  is  gradually  lowered,  the  pressure  upon  the 
grapes  underneath  is  increased. 

The    triumph    of    Bacchus    is    presented  in   another  picture, 


i.  —  \'intage  scene  :   Cupids  gathering  and  pressing  grapes. 
Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  \'ettii. 

which  is  fortunately  in  a  better  state  of  preservation.  At  the 
head  of  the  procession  is  a  bacchante,  riding  on  a  panther. 
Bacchus  sits  in  a  four-wheeled  chariot  drawn  by  goats;  the 
coachman  is  a  satyr.  Behind  the  triumphal  car  is  Pan,  danc- 
ing and  playing  the  double  flute ;  last  comes  a  vine-crowned 
Cupid,  dancing,  with  a  large  mixing  bowl  upon  his  shoulder. 
The  skill  shown  in  the  pose  of  the  dancing  figures  is  especially 
noteworthy ;  they  stand  lightly  erect,  seeming  not  to  feel  their 
weight  or  the  exertion  of  rapid  movement. 

In  the  last  of  this  series,  upon  the  left  wall,  Cupids  appear 
as  wine  dealers;  the  part  of  the  picture  that  has  been  preserved 
is  shown  in  Fig.  169.  The  rustic  bearing  of  the  seller,  at  the 
left,  is  in  pleasing  contrast  with  the  free  and  graceful  carriage 
of  the  well-bred  buyer,  to  whom  he  is  handing  a  sample  of  the 
wine  in  a  cup.     At  the  right  two  servants  are  drawing  another 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE    VETTH 


337 


sample  from  an  amphora;  one  tips  the  amphora  so  cautiously 
that  the  other,  who  is  holding  the  bowl,  presses  the  neck  gently 
with  his  left  hand  in  order  to  make  the  slender  stream  flow 
faster. 

Rapidity  of  movement  reaches  a  climax  in  the  middle  picture 
of  the  right  wall,  which  represents  the  games  of  the  Circus. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  the  country ;  each  goal  is  marked  by  three 
trees.  Antelopes  take  the  place  of  horses,  and  the  groups  are 
conceived  with  wonderful  realism.  The  tiny,  fluttering  gar- 
ments of  the  drivers  display  the  colors  of  the  four  parties,  — 
green,  red,  white,  and  blue. 


HI 

Ko^l^l^H 

■i^PVr^ 

■jj^H 

^^^Bl 

^ilH 

^K£^¥:^i 

^HH^B<f^9^^^^^^^^^^^H 

m 

-1     ■*  _ml 

^B|  vL-  ji 

H^9IE^^ 

^^HP|w.i^^H^H 

Fig.  169. —  Cupids  as  dealers  in  wine. 
Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 


Two  of  the  pictures  on  the  end  wall  are  so  damaged  that  it  is 
not  easy  to  make  out  the  details.  One  of  them,  like  that  just 
described,  presents  a  purely  Roman  subject  —  the  festival  of 
Vesta  (Fig.  170).  Cupids  and  Psyches  are  reclining  at  ease 
about  a  serving  table  in  the  shape  of  a  deep  platter  with  two 
handles,  on  which  drinking  vessels  are  seen ;  in  the  background 
are  two  asses,  sacred  to  Vesta  (p.  98).  Some,  at  least,  of  the 
Cupid  pictures  could  not  have  been  taken  from  Greek  origi- 
nals. 

In  the  atrium  also  there  was  a  black  stripe  containing  Cupids 
similar  to  those  already  described,  but  the  figures  are  not  so  well 
preserved.     The  most  interesting  scene  represents  a  sacrifice  to 


338  POMPEII 

Fortuna.  Cupids  appear  also  riding  and  driving.  Some  are 
mounted  on  goats  and  engaged  in  a  contest.  One  stands  on  a 
crab,  guiding  the  ungainly  creature  with  reins  and  plying  the 
whip  ;  another  is  similarly  mounted  on  a  lobster.  A  few  are  in 
chariots,  the  chariot  in  one  case  being  drawn  by  two  dolphins. 

In  each  division  of  the  wall  of  the  atrium  near  the  bottom  is 
the  half-length  figure  of  a  child,  painted  on  a  dark  red  ground. 
The  children  are  busied  with  vessels  of  all  kinds,  apparently 
intended  for  sacrifice.  The  seriousness  of  their  task,  the  impor- 
tance which  they  attach  to  their  helpfulness,  is  finely  expressed 
in  the  faces,  which  are  individualized  in  the  manner  of  a  true 
artist. 

We  may  dismiss  the  later  paintings  of  the  house  with  few 
words.     In  the  fauces  {b)  are  small  monochrome  panels  contain- 


Fig.  170.  —  Cupids  celebrating  the  festival  of  Vesta. 
Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 

ing  a  pair  of  deer,  a  cock  fight,  vases,  and  a  wallet  with  a  herald's 
staff,  attributes  of  Mercury,  who  perhaps  had  a  place  among 
the  Penates  of  the  house. 

In  the  room  at  the  left  of  the  atrium  {c)  is  a  painting  of 
Cyparissus,  the  youth  beloved  of  Apollo,  with  his  wounded  deer 
on  the  ground  near  him  ;  in  another  part  of  the  room  is  the 
wrestling  match  between  Pan  and  Eros.  Among  the  figures 
seen  in  the  architectural  framework  of  the  upper  division  of  the 
wall  is  Zeus,  sitting  on  his  throne,  represented  as  a  youth,  un- 
bearded ;  Leda  with  the  swan  also  appears,  and  Danae  holding 
out  her  robe  to  catch  the  golden  rain. 

The  direction  of  the  owner's  tastes  is  perhaps  indicated  by  a 
painting  in  the  peristyle,  at  the  middle  of  the  wall  under  the 
colonnade  at  the  left.  It  contains  a  portrait,  probably  of  an 
author ;  near  by  is  a  manuscript  case  with  rolls  of  papyrus. 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE   VEITH 


339 


The  paintings  in  the  two  dining  rooms  opening  on  the  peri- 
style, //  and  /,  are  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  than  those  of 
any  other  part  of  the  house.  In  the  first  room,  n,  the  simple 
and  restful  decoration  surrounding  the  large  pictures  is  in  strik- 
ing contrast  with  the  pictures  themselves,  one  of  which  is  placed 
at  the  middle  of  each  of  the  three  walls.  Here  we  see  the 
infant  Hercules  strangling  the  serpents,  there  Pentheus  and  the 
Maenads  about  to  tear  him  in  pieces;  the  subject  of  the  third 
painting  is  the  punishment  of  Dirce,  the  treatment  being  not 
unlike  that  of  the  sculptured  Farnese  group  in  the  Naples 
Museum. 

The  decorative  effect  of  the  other  room,  /,  is  more  harmonious. 
The  divisions  of  the  wall  space,  the  relation  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal paintings  to  the  decorative  design,  and  the  distribution  of 
ornament  are  indicated  in  our  illustration  (Plate  IX);  but  no 
reproduction  can  do  justice  to  the  richness  of  the  coloring. 

The  painting  in  the  middle  panel  at  the  right  brings  before 
us  Bacchus  with  his  train  as  they  come  upon  the  sleeping 
Ariadne.  On  the  left  wall  opposite  is  Daedalus,  pointing  out 
the  wooden  cow  that  he  has  made  to  Pasiphae,  who  hands  to 
him  a  golden  arm  band.  The  subject  of  the  third  picture  is 
here  met  with  for  the  first  time  at  Pompeii  —  the  punishment 
of  Ixion. 

The  tragedy  of  the  scene  (Fig.  171)  is  plainly  suggested,  but 
not  forced  upon  the  beholder ;  we  see,  at  the  left,  only  half  of 
the  ever  revolving  wheel  to  which  the  wretched  victim  is  bound. 
The  other  figures  are  more  prominent  and,  with  one  exception, 
convey  no  suggestion  of  pain  or  sympathy  in  either  pose  or 
expression  of  face.  Nearest  the  wheel  is  Hephaestus,  who  has 
just  fastened  Ixion  upon  it;  his  pincers,  hammer,  and  anvil  are 
lying  upon  the  ground  in  the  corner.  In  front  of  him  is  Hermes, 
who,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  Zeus,  brought  the  offender 
to  the  place  of  punishment. 

A  sad-faced  female  figure  with  veiled  head  sits  in  the  fore- 
ground —  a  personification  of  the  spirit  of  one  who  has  died,  a 
shade  introduced  to  indicate  that  the  place  of  punishment  is  the 
Underworld.  The  left  hand  is  involuntarily  raised  with  the 
shock  that  the  thought  of  the  victim's  suffering  brings  ;  the  face 


340 


POiMPEII 


has  been  thought  by  some  to  resemble  that  often  given  to  the 
Madonna. 

The  two  figures  at  the  right  of  the  picture  are  of  the  upper 
world,  not  directly  connected  with  the  main  action,  yet  well  con- 


Fig.  171. —  ilie  inmislinicnt  ot  Ixion. 
Wall  painting  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 


ceived  and  skilfully  introduced.  Nearer  the  foreground  Hera 
sits  enthroned,  her  sceptre  in  her  left  hand ;  behind  her  stands 
Iris,  faithful  messenger,  who  points  out  to  her  the  well  deserved 
fate  of  him  who  dared  to  offer  an  affront  to  the  queen  of  heaven. 


CHAPTER    XLII 


THREE  HOUSES   OF  UNUSUAL   PLAN 


In  the  houses  described  in  the  preceding  chapters  the  distri- 
bution of  the  rooms  is  characterized  by  a  certain  regularity, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  indicate  the  arrangements  by  refer- 
ence to  an  ideal  or  normal  plan.  A 
wide  departure,  however,  is  occasion- 
ally noted  ;  and  by  way  of  illustration 
three  houses  of  unusual  plan  will  be 
briefly  presented  here,  first  a  house 
without  an  atrium,  then  one  having 
an  atrium  but  no  compluvium,  and, 
lastly,  a  large  establishment  built  on 
terraces  at  different  levels. 

I.    The  House  of  Acceptus  and 

EUHODIA 

Sometimes  a  few  rooms  of  a  large 
house  were  cut  off  from  the  atrium 
and  used  as  a  separate  dwelling ;  the 
original  plan  in  such  cases  is  easily 
determined.  The  number  of  houses 
built  without  an  atrium  in  the  begin- 
ning is  exceedingly  small.     Among 

the  pleasantest  was  the  modest  dwelling  of  Acceptus  and  Eu- 
hodia,  on  the  south  side  of  the  double  Insula  in  the  eighth 
Region  (VIII.  v.-vi.  39);  the  names  are  taken  from  a  couple 
of  election  notices  painted  on  the  front,  in  which  they  appear 
together. 

From  the  street  one  passed  directly  under  a  colonnade  (Fig. 
172,  a)  in  two  stories,  facing  a  small  garden  {b),  from  which  it 

341 


J' 


V  <ii 


Fig.  172. —  The  house  of  Acceptus 
and  Euhodia. 

a.  Colonnade.  d.    Bedroom. 

b.  Garden.  f.    Dining  room. 

c.  Kitchen.  g.    Garden. 

i.    Bedroom  widi  places  for  two  beds. 


342 


POMPEII 


^l^    x>/   59 


A 


Fig.  173  ■- 


■Longitudinal  section  of  the  house  of  Acceptus 
and  Euhodia,  restored. 


was  separated  by  a  low  wall.  At  one  end  of  the  garden  was  an 
open-air  triclinium  (/'),  which  still  remains.  The  rest  of  the 
plot,  used  as  a  flower  garden,  was  profusely  ornamented  ;  five 

heads  of  herms,  a 
frog  and  other  objects 
of  marble  were  found 
in  it,  besides  a  couple 
of  alabaster  basins 
and  five  statuettes  of 
Egyptian  divinities 
made  of  glazed .  pot- 
tery. In  the  corner 
of  the  colonnade,  be- 
tween the  garden  and 
the  entrance,  is  a 
small  hearth,  conven- 
iently placed  for  serv- 
ing the  open-air  triclinium  ;  in  the  opposite  corner  at  the  left 
the  excavators  found  the  remains  of  a  cupboard,  together  with 
vessels  of  bronze,  glass,  and  clay.  At  the  further  end  of  the 
colonnade  one  passed  into  another  small  garden  {g). 

A  bedroom  (d)  opened  on  the  colonnade  near  the  entrance. 
A  corridor  (c)  led  to  the  kitchen  (c)  behind  it.  Beyond  the 
corridor  is  the  dining  room  (/).  Another  sleeping  room  (/)  with 
places  for  two  beds  is  entered  through  a  kind  of  anteroom  (/i)  at 
the  rear  of  the  house. 

The  rooms  of  the  second  story  corresponded  closely  with  those 
underneath,  and  were  entered  from  the  second  story  of  the 
colonnade  ;  the  stairs,  partly  of  wood,  started  in  the  kitchen. 
The  appearance  of  the  house  as  one  looked  from  the  garden  at 
the  right  toward  the  colonnade  may  be  inferred  from  our  restora- 
tion, which  gives  a  longitudinal  section  (Fig.  173);  the  letters 
under  the  section  refer  to  the  rooms  as  they  are  indicated  in  the 
plan. 

The  house  was  decorated  in  the  fourth  style.  On  the  south 
wall  of  the  kitchen  there  is  a  painting  of  Fortuna,  with  the  usual 
attributes,  a  cornucopia  and  a  rudder  resting  on  a  ball.  The 
Genius  and  the  Lares  nowhere  appear,  and  as  a  lotus  blossom  is 


THREE    HOUSES   OF    UNUSUAL   PLAN 


343 


painted  on  the  forehead  of  the  goddess,  who  is  thus  conceived 
of  as  a  form  of  Lsis,  we  may  suppose  that  Acceptus  and  his  wife 
were  adherents  of  the  Egyptian  cult.  Besides  the  statuettes  of 
Egyptian  divinities  there  was  found  in  the  garden  the  foot  of  a 
marble  table  with  a  Greek  inscription  "  of  Serapion,"  an  Egyptian 
name.  Acceptus  and  Euhodia  may  have  come  from  Alexandria 
and  thence  have  introduced  into  Pompeii  this  type  of  house,  so 
unlike  the  native  form.  The  Latin  name  of  Acceptus  does  not 
stand  in  the  way  of  this  explanation,  for  he  was  probably  a 
freedman,  who  in  Egypt  may  have  had  a  Roman  master. 


n.    A  House  without  a  Compluvium 

The  accompanying  plan  (Fig.  174)  shows  the  arrangement  of 
a  small  house  on  the  north  side  of  Nola  Street  in  the  fifth 
Region  (V.  v.  2).  The  problem  of  lighting  the  atrium  (c),  the 
roof  of  which  sloped  toward  the  back,  was  met  in  a  simple  way. 


a.    Shop. 


yi      3      ■*      S  /am 

Fig.  174.  —  Plan  of  a  house  without  a  compluvium  C^'.  v.  2). 
b.    Fauces.  e.    Atrium.  f.    Light  court.  k.    Dining  room. 


Hearth. 


2.    Cistern  curb. 


At  the  rear  a  light  court  (_/)  was  constructed,  which  furnished 
light  and  air  by  means  of  broad  windows,  not  only  to  the  atrium, 
but  also  to  the  adjoining  room  g  and  indirectly  to  the  dining 
room  k,  which  had  a  window  opening  on  g. 

This  arrangement,  however,  is  in  part  the  result  of  later 
changes.  Originally  the  room  marked  g  belonged  to  the  court, 
/,  and  the  house  consisted  of  two  parts,  separated  by  a  narrow 
area.     The  kitchen  was  then  in  the  low  room  (z ),  above  which 


344 


POMPEII 


Ih^i-iuy.  Met  I 


A~  f'5. 


was  a  correspondingly  low  chamber,  the  height  of  the  two  rooms 
being  only  equal  to  that  of  the  dining  room  {k).     In  later  times, 

however,  the  hearth  was  moved  to  the 
corner  of  the  atrium  ( i ),  the  smoke  be- 
ing let  out  through  a  small  window  in 
the  wall.  A  stairway,  partly  of  wood, 
led  to  the  upper  rooms  at  the  front  of 
the  house.  Along  the  street  ran  a  stone 
bench,  protected  by  a  roof  projecting 
over  it. 

The  water  from  the  roofs  fell  into  the 
light  court  f,  and  was  collected  in  a  cis- 
tern. We  give  a  transverse  section 
across  /  and  g  (Fig.  175),  showing  the 
arrangement  of  the  roofs,  doors,  and 
window  at  the  rear. 

On  the  wall  of  g  is  scratched  the  in- 
scription, Fnres  foras,  fnigi  intro,  —  '  Let  thieves  keep  out,  l^t 
honest  folk  come  in !  ' 


Fig.  175. — Transverse  section 
of  the  house  without  a  com- 
pluvium. 

At  the  left,  light  court '(/) ,  with 
stairs  (h)  leading  to  an  ui> 
per  room  over  i.  At  the 
right,  room  g,  with  the  win- 
dow opening  into  the  din- 
ing room  k. 


III.    The  House  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II 

A  good  example  of  a  house  extended  over  terraces  at  different 
levels  may  be  seen  on  the  edge  of  the  hill  west  of  the  Forum 
Triangulare(VIII.  ii.  39),  that  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  casa 
deir  Imperatore  Giuseppe  II.  The  name  was  given  in  com- 
memoration of  a  visit  of  this  emperor  to  Pompeii,  in  1769,  when 
a  special  excavation  in  his  honor  was  made  in  a  part  of  the  house. 

The  uppermost  of  the  three  terraces  on  which  the  house  is 
built  (Fig.  176,  i)  is  at  the  level  of  the  .street  (Vico  della  Regina, 
Plan  VI),  the  lowest  (3)  in  part  occupies  the  place  of  the  old 
city  wall ;  the  middle  terrace  is  adjusted  to  the  intervening  slope. 
The  arrangement  of  the  stairways  between  the  terraces  and  the 
distribution  of  the  rooms  may  be  more  easily  understood  from 
an  inspection  of  the  plan  in  connection  with  the  key  below  than 
from  description. 

There  was  a  second  story  over  a  part  of  the  rooms  on  the 
upper  terrace,  as  indicated  by  the  stairways  at  e  and  ;/  and  in 


THREE    HOUSES   OF    UNUSUAL   PLAN 


345 


the  corner  of  //,  but  the  extent  of  it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

The  traces  of  the  upper  rooms  of  the  middle  terrace,  however, 

are  clearly  seen,  and  their  arrangement  is  indicated  on  the  plan 

(4);  the  height  of  -v  and  k,  which  were  in  one  story,  was  equal 

to  that  of  the  smaller  rooms  with  the  chambers  above. 

The  front  of  the  house,  the  large  Tuscan  atrium  with  the 

adjoining  rooms,  dates  from  the  Tufa  Period  ;  the  atrium  was 
58       s^ 


Fig.  176. —  Plan  of  the  lioubc 

1.  Upper  terrace  at  the  level  of  the  street. 

a.  Fauces. 

b.  Atrium. 

c.  House  chapel. 

g,  h.   Alae,   with  a  wardrobe  (/")   at  the  rear 

Qih. 
7t.    Room   with   two  stairways,   leading   up   to 

second  floor  and  down  to  middle  terrace. 
11).    Middle  room  opening  on  a  colonnade  {y) 

which  faces  the  rear  of  the  terrace  (z). 
X,  V.    Dining  rooms,  opening  on  the  colonnade. 

2.  Middle  terrace. 

a.  Corridor,  entered  from  stairway  in  u  above. 

^.  Corridor.  y,  8.    Low  vaulted  rooms. 

e.  Stairway  leading  to  lower  terrace. 

11.  Middle  room. 


t  llie  Emperor  Joseph  11. 

i5.    Dining  room,  with  a  window  opening  on 

the  terrace  at  the  rear. 
K.    Small  dining  room. 
I,  A,  ^.    Sleeping  rooms. 
Lower  terrace. 

I.  Corridor  leading  down  from  the  foot  of  the 

stairway  in  e. 
3,  4.    Bakery. 
6-8.    Bath.     (6     Tepidarium.      7.    Caldarium. 

8.    Frigidarium.) 
Upper  rooms  of  the  middle  terrace. 
L    Excavated  room  used  as  a  cellar. 

II,  HL   Rooms  over  I,  A. 

VI.  Room  over  ^,  connected  with  V  (over  y, 
5)  by  a  gallery  over  the  stairway  e,  and 
with  »)  by  a  ladder  or  stairway. 


originally  one  of  the  most  richly  decorated  at  Pompeii.  The 
rooms  back  of  the  atrium  opening  toward  the  rear,  and  those 
of  the  middle  and  lower  terraces,  are  a  later  addition,  built  after 


346 


POMPEII 


the  city  wall  at  this  point  had  been  removed,  perhaps  not  long 
before  the  end  of  the  Republic ;  traces  of  the  second  style  of 
decoration  are  found  in  one  of  the  lowest  rooms,  the  tepidarium 
of  the  bath.  Remains  of  the  first  style  are  found  in  the  fauces, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  house  is  decorated  in  the  last  style. 

One  of  the  small  rooms  (c)  opening  on  the  atrium,  originally 
a  bedroom,  was  in  later  times  turned  into  a  house  chapel.  In 
the  right  wall  is  a  small  niche,  on  the  back  of  which  a  Genius 
of  the  ordinary  type  is  painted.  Near  him  and  also  offering  a 
libation  is  a  female  figure  with  the  attributes  of  Juno,  a  diadem, 
and  a  sceptre.     The  two  figures  represent  the  Genii  of  the  mas- 


ViM     i"«  ,  5g 


(^PfVH  ^T     ",      Y-2-3.o") 


Fig.  177. 


■  Corner  of  bake  room  in  the  lowest  story  of  the  house  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II,  at  the  time  of  e.\cavation. 


ter  and  mistress  of  the  house  (p.  270).  Under  the  niche,  and  at 
the  sides  are  iron  nails,  driven  into  the  plaster  to  hold  wreaths 
and  garlands. 

On  either  side  of  the  broad  middle  room  (zv)  is  a  dining  room 
{v,  A-),  connected  with  it  by  two  large  windows.  All  three  rooms 
open  upon  the  colonnade  (j),  and  this  again  opens  out  upon  a 
terrace  (2). 

The  principal  room  of  the  middle  story  (2.  rj,  under  s)  takes  the 
place  of  an  atrium  ;  it  is  lighted  by  a  door  and  two  windows 
opening  upon  a  terrace  {/x).  Connected  with  it  are  two  dining- 
rooms  (??,  k),  considerably  higher  than  the  other  apartments  of 
this  story,  and  three  sleeping  rooms  (i,  \,  ^).     A  dark  corridor 


THREE    HOUSES   OF    UNUSUAL    PLAN  347 

( ^)  separated  these  rooms  from  the  solid  earth  at  the  rear,  and 
furnished  access,  by  means  of  ladders,  to  two  low  upper  rooms 
(over  I  and  X;  see  4.  11,  in),  perhaps  used  as  storerooms. 
From  /3  one  could  also  reach,  in  the  same  way,  an  oblong 
chamber  excavated  in  the  earth  (i),  designed  originally  as  a 
cistern,  but  used  as  a  cellar  at  the  time  of  the  eruption.  Of  the 
remaining  upper  rooms  one  (iv)  was  built  on  the  solid  ground 
at  the  side  of  the  stairway  leading  from  the  upper  floor  (a) ; 
the  other  two  (v,  over  7,  8  and  vi,  over  ^)  were  connected  by 
a  gallery  or  bridge  over  the  stairway  leading  to  the  lower  floor 
(e);  this  gallery  could  be  reached  also  by  a  ladder  or  wooden 
stairway  in  the  large  middle  room  (77).  The  outermost  room 
(vi)  was  perhaps  a  washroom  ;  there  is  a  rectangular  basin  in 
one  corner. 

The  lower  floor  was  given  up  to  a  bath  {frigidarinni,  8  ;  tcpi- 
dariitvi,  6;  caldarinni,  7)  and  to  a  bakery  (3,  4). 

In  the  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  frigidarium  (8)  and  one  of  the 
rooms  of  the  bakery  (3)  is  a  round  hole  for  ventilation,  opening 
upon  the  terrace  above  through  a  kind  of  chimney.  The  hol- 
low walls  of  the  caldarium  (7)  are  carried  to  the  crown  of  the 
vault,  at  the  middle  of  which  is  a  similar  opening  for  the  vent. 
The  places  of  the  three  openings  in  the  floor  of  the  terrace  are 
seen  in  the  plan  (2,  /a). 

At  one  end  of  the  larger  room  of  the  bakery  (3)  is  the  oven ; 
at  the  other  two  rectangular  basins  of  masonry.  In  the  corner 
near  the  basins  was  found  the  skeleton  of  a  man  who  at  the 
time  of  the  eruption  had  taken  refuge  in  this  room  and  prob- 
ably died  of  hunger.  The  appearance  of  the  room  at  the  time  of 
excavation  is  shown  in  a  sketch  published  by  Mazois  (Fig.  177). 

The  door  near  the  corner,  seen  in  the  illustration,  led  out- 
side the  city.  The  proprietor  of  the  house  perhaps  had  a  special 
permit  enabling  him  to  leave  or  enter  the  city  at  any  time  with- 
out surveillance ;  none  of  the  other  houses  along  the  edge  of 
the  city  have  a  private  entrance  of  this  kind. 


CHAPTER    XLIII 

OTHER   NOTEWORTHY  HOUSES 

The  houses  accorded  a  detailed  description  in  the  previous 
chapters  are  few  in  comparison  with  the  number  of  those 
worthy  of  special  study.  He  alone  who  has  wandered  day 
after  day  among  the  ruins,  returning  again  and  again  to  explore 
the  parts  of  the  city  which  are  rarely  seen  by  the  hasty  visitor, 
can  realize  what  a  wealth  of  interesting  material  lies  behind  the 
barren  walls  lining  the  streets  on  either  side. 

The  location  of  the  houses  mentioned  incidentally  is  given  in 
Plan  VI,  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  Such  are,  the  house  of 
CaeciHus  Jucundus,  on  Stabian  Street  (V.  i.  26),  the  tablinum  of 
which  contains  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  wall 
decoration  yet  discovered,  in  the  third  style ;  the  house  of 
Lucretius,  on  the  same  street  (IX.  iii.  5),  with  a  little  garden 
behind  the  tablinum  adorned  with  quaint  sculptures  ;  the  house 
of  the  Hunt  on  Nola  Street  (VII.  iv.  48),  so  named  from  the 
large  hunting  scene  on  the  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  garden  ;  and 
further  down  on  Nola  Street  (IX. /vii.'6)  the  extensive  house 
with  three  atriums  and  a  large  peristyle,  excavated  in  1879, 
eighteen  centuries  after  the  destruction  of  the  city,  and  hence 
called  the  house  of  the  Centenary,  casa  del  Centenario. 

In  the  same  block  with  the  house  of  the  Hunt,  opposite  that 
of  the  Faun,  is  the  house  of  the  Sculptured  Capitals,  casa  dei 
Capitelli  Figurati  (VII.  iv.  57).  It  received  its  name  from  the 
figures  carved  in  the  tufa  capitals  of  the  pilasters  at  the  entrance, 
one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  178;  the  stucco  with  which  the 
surface  was  coated  has  now  fallen  off.  Such  figures  are  not 
infrequently  met  with  in  pilaster  capitals  of  the  Tufa  Period, 
the  subjects  being  always  taken,  as  here,  from  the  bacchic  cycle ; 
the  satyr  at  the  left  is  well  rendered.     The  plan  of  the  house  is 

348. 


OTHF.R    XO'l'KWORrKV    HOCSKS 


349 


Fig.  178.  —  Capital  of  pilaster  at  the  entrance 
of  the  house  of  the  Sculptured  Capitals. 


simple,  like  that  of  other  houses  of  moderate  size  dating  from 
the  pre-Roman  time. 

Near  the  west  end  of  Nola  Street  is  the  house  of  Pansa, 
which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  sixth  Insula  of  Region  VI. 
Although  of  approximately  the 
same  size  as  the  house  of  the 
Faun,  and  built  in  the  same 
period,  it  contained  fewer  large 
rooms ;  its  proportions  were 
less  impressive,  its  finish  less 
elegant.  The  walls  present 
many  evidences  of  repairs  and 
alterations,  but  of  the  wall  dec- 
oration nothing  remains. 

The  plan  (Fig.  179)  is  of  in- 
terest on  account  of  its  regu- 
larity. It  well  illustrates  the  extent  to  which,  at  Pompeii,  rooms 
not  required  for  household  purposes  were  utilized  as  shops  and 
small  separate  dwellings,  which  were  rented  to  tenants,  and 
doubtless  formed  an  important  source  of  income. 

The  vestibule  and  fauces  have  been  mentioned  previously 
(p.  249).  The  living  rooms  are  grouped  about  a  single  atrium 
(2)  and  a  large  peristyle  (9).  A  colonnade  at  the  rear  of  the 
house  faces  the  garden,  which,  as  indicated  by  the  appearance 
of  the  ground  at  the  time  of  excavation,  was  used  for  vegetables. 
Opening  on  the  colonnade  is  the  gardener's  room  (a). 

In  the  front  were  shops,  one  of  which  (35)  was  connected 
with  the  house  and  served  as  the  proprietor's  place  of  business; 
another  (33)  was  used  as  a  salesroom  for  the  bakery,  which 
occupied  the  rooms  numbered  28-34.  On  the  same  side  of 
the  house  were  three  small  two-story  dwellings,  one  of  which 
(22-23)  contained  windows  opening  into  an  adjoining  room  (12) 
of  the  house  and  into  the  peristyle ;  it  was  doubtless  occupied 
by  some  one  connected  with  the  household.  The  dwellings  on 
the  other  street  (A,  B,  C)  were  larger.  Fiorelli  thought  that 
this  Insula  belonged  to  AUeius  Nigidius  Mains  (p.  489) ;  the 
name  of  Pansa  was  given  to  it  from  an  election  notice  painted 
on  the  front. 


;5o 


POMPEII 


There  is  a  remarkable  group  of  houses  near  the  north  end  of 
Mercury  Street.  The  first  in  importance  is  the  house  of  Castor 
and  Pollux  (VI.  ix.  6),  which  is  so  named  from  the  figures  of 
the  Dioscuri,  holding  their  horses  by  the  bridle,  painted  on  the 
walls  of  the  principal  fauces.  Between  the  two  atriums,  one  of 
which  is  of  the  Corinthian  type,  lies  a  large  peristyle  ;  and  behind 
the  Corinthian  atrium  is  a  garden  with  a  colonnade  in  front. 
The  decoration  of  the  house  is  especially  effective  ;  that  of  the 
larger  tablinum  was  by  one  of  the  best  artists  who  worked  at 
Pompeii.     The  paintings  in  the  two  central  panels  of  this  room 


Fig. 

179.  —  Plan  of  the  house  of  Pansa 

I. 

Fauces. 

15.    Oecus. 

24- 

-25,  26-27.     Two  small  sepa 

2. 

Atrium. 

19.    Kitchen. 

rate  dwellings. 

4. 

4.   Alae. 

20.    Room  for  a  wagon. 

28 

34.  Bakery.    (29.  Mill  room 

S- 

Tablinum. 

21.    Colonnade    opening    on    the 

30.    Oven.) 

6, 

Aiidron. 

garden. 

35> 

37-40.    Shops. 

Q- 

Peristyle. 

22-23.    Small  dwelling  with  second 

41. 

Shop  with  back  rooms. 

o. 

Passage  leading 

toposticum. 

story,    connected   with   the 

42- 

Room  with  bake  oven. 

3- 

Dining  room. 

house. 

A, 

B,  C.     Separate  dwellings. 

are  often  mentioned ;  on  the  right  wall,  the  recognition  of 
Achilles  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes ;  on  the  left,  the 
quarrel  between  Achilles  and  Agamemnon.  The  representa- 
tion of  Venus  Pompeiana  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  from  the  peristyle. 
Beyond  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux  is  that  of  the  Centaur 
(VI.  ix.  3),  which  received  its  name  from  a  painting  in  which 
Hercules,  Deianira,  and  Nessus  appear ;  the  end  of  a  bedroom 


OTHER    NOTEWORTHY    HOUSES 


351 


in  this  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  122.  The  rest  of  the  insula 
belongs  to  the  large  house  of  Meleager,  named  from  a  picture 
representing  Meleager  and  Atalanta.  The  walls  contained  nu- 
merous mythological  pictures,  part  of  which  were  transferred  to 
the  Naples  Museum  ;  those  left  on  the  walls  have  suffered  from 
exposure  to  the  weather. 

The  house  of  Apollo  also  (VI.  vii.  23),  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  street,  is  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  decoration,  in  the 
last  style ;  the  god  appears  in  a  series  of  paintings.  Two 
houses  in  the  next  insula,  on  the  south,  have  in  their  gardens 
fountain  niches  veneered  with  bright  mosaics,  the  casa  della 
Fontana  Grande  (VL  viii.  22)  and  the  casa  della  Fontana 
Piccola  (VL  viii.  23). 

At  the  middle  of  the  tenth  Insula,  in  the  same  Region,  is  the 
house  of  the  Anchor  (VI.  x.  7),  so  called  from  an  anchor  out- 
lined in  the  black  and 
white  mosaic  of  the 
fauces.  The  peristyle 
here  presents  an  in- 
teresting peculiarity 
of  construction.  The 
level  of  the  street  at 
the  rear  of  the  house 
was  below  that  of  Mer- 
cury Street.  Instead 
of  filling  up  the  lot  so 
as  to  raise  the  garden 
to  the  height  of  the 
front  part,  the  builder 

constructed  a  kind  of  basement  under  the  colonnade  of  the  peri- 
style, the  floor  of  which  was  thus  adjusted  to  the  level  of  the 
floors  in  the  front  rooms ;  the  garden  and  the  floor  of  the  base- 
ment were  on  the  same  level  as  the  street  at  the  rear.  The 
colonnade  was  higher  on  the  north  than  on  the  other  three 
sides  (Fig.  180).  The  effect  of  the  whole  was  far  from  un- 
pleasing.  Whether  the  projections  seen  in  the  niches  below,  at 
the  level  of  the  garden,  are  pedestals  or  small  altars  cannot  be 
determined.     The  niches  at  the  front  end  were  made  larger,  and 


Fig.  180.- 


■  Section  sliowing  a  part  of  the  peristyle  of  the 
house  of  the  Anchor,  restored. 


352 


POMPEII 


were  three  in  number.  In  the  middle  niche  was  a  diminutive 
temple ;  the  other  two  had  the  form  of  an  apse,  and  contained 
fountain  figures. 

Houses  were  sometimes  enlarged  at   the  expense  of    neigh- 
boring dwellings,  which,  in  some  cases,  were  destroyed  to  th<» 


W.^' 


n-    .< 


X;v 


Fig.  i8i.  —  Plan  of  the  house  of  the  Citharist. 
6.    West   atrium  with  connecting  rooms,  entered     42.    Kitchen. 

from  Stabian  Street.  47.    North  atrium,  entered  from  the  continuation 

17,  32.    Peristyles  belonging  with  the  west  atrium.  of  .Abbondanza  Street. 

40,41.    Bath  —  tepidarium  and  caldarium.  56.    Peristyle  belonging  with  the  north  atrium. 

foundations,  in  others  remodelled  or  incorporated  with  slight 
change.  An  example  is  the  house  of  the  Citharist,  which  fills 
the  greater  part  of  the  fourth  Insula  in  Region  I,  on  the  east 
side  of  Stabian  Street.  A  bronze  statue  of  Apollo  playing  the 
cithara,   found  in  the  middle  peristyle  (Fig.   i8i,   17),  gave  its 


OTHKR    NOTKWOR'rHV    HOUSES 


353 


name  to  the  house.  It  is  apparently  a  faithful  copy  of  a  Greek 
masterpiece  at  Sparta,  and  is  now  in  the  Naples  Museum.  The 
house  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  that  of  Popidius  Secundus. 

There  are  two  atriums  (6,  47)  and  three  peristyles  ( 17,  32,  56). 
A  large  part  of  the  house,  the  west  atrium  (6),  with  the  connect- 


Fig.  182.  — Orestes  and  Pylades  before  King  Thoas. 
Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the  Citharisl. 


ing  rooms  and  the  two  peristyles,  17  and  32,  was  built  in  the 
Tufa  Period,  in  the  place  of  several  older  houses.  The  rooms 
east  of  the  two  peristyles,  and  the  north  atrium  (47)  and  peri- 
style (56),  with  the  adjoining  rooms,  were  added  in  Roman  times, 
probably  near  the  end  of  the  Republic  ;  the  house  was  afterwards 
decorated  in  the  second  style.  Remains  of  the  third  and  fourth 
styles  also  are  found  in  some  parts  of  the  house.  The  better 
apartments  are  grouped  about  the  peristyles ;  the  rooms  about 


354  POMPEII 

the  atriums  were  turned  over  to  the  slaves  or  used  for  domestic 
purposes. 

In  the  large  room  (35)  opening  on  the  south  peristyle  were  two 
paintings  of  unusual  merit,  both  of  which  were  transferred  to  the 
Naples  Museum.  The  subject  of  one  was  the  finding  of  the 
deserted  Ariadne  by  Bacchus  ;  in  the  other  Orestes  and  Pylades 
appear  as  captives  before  Thoas,  the  king  of  Tauris  (Fig.  182). 

At  the  right  of  the  picture  sits  Thoas,  looking  at  the  captives, 
his  sword  lying  across  his  knees,  his  hands  resting  upon  the  end 
of  his  sceptre.  Behind  him  stands  a  guard  with  a  long  spear  in 
the  right  hand.  Another  guard  with  two  spears  stands  behind 
Orestes  and  Pylades,  whose  hands  are  bound.  Orestes,  upon 
whose  head  is  a  wreath  of  laurel,  looks  downward,  an  expres- 
sion of  sadness  and  resignation  upon  his  finely  chiselled  fea- 
tures. Pylades  is  not  without  anxiety,  but  is  alert  and  hope- 
ful. Between  the  two  groups  is  an  altar  on  which  incense  is 
burning.  In  the  background  Iphigenia  is  seen  moving  slowly 
forward ;  the  head  is  entirely  obliterated.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  painting  is  so  badly  preserved.  The  faces  of  the  two 
youths  are  individualized  with  remarkable  skill,  and  the  picture 
here  used  as  the  centre  of  a  decorative  framework  of  the  fourth 
style  is  evidently  a  copy  of  a  masterpiece. 

On  the  south  side  of  Abbondanza  Street,  opposite  the  Stabian 
Baths,  is  the  house  of  Cornelius  Rufus  (VIII.  iv.  15),  a  view  of 
the  interior  of  which  has  already  been  given.  The  name  of  the 
proprietor  is  known  from  the  dedication  on  the  harm  (seen  in 
Fig.  121),  C.  Coj-nelio  Rufo;  the  carved  table  supports  behind 
the  impluvium  are  among  the  finest  yet  discovered. 

In  the  same  block  is  the  house  of  Marcus  Holconius  (VI 11. 
iv.  4),  a  good  example  of  a  house  completely  restored  and  deco- 
rated after  the  earthquake  of  63.  The  right  ala  was  fitted  up 
with  shelves,  on  which  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  were  kitchen 
vessels  of  bronze,  iron,  and  terra  cotta.  The  colonnade  about 
the  peristyle  was  in  two  stories.  From  the  columns  at  the  front 
six  jets  of  water,  at  a  height  of  about  four  feet,  fell  forward  into 
the  gutter ;  and  there  was  an  equal  number  at  the  rear.  There 
was  also  a  little  fountain  in  the  exedra  at  the  rear  of  the  peristyle. 


CHAPTER    XLIV 

ROMAN   VILLAS.  —  THE   VILLA    OF  DIOMEDES 

Two  classes  of  villas  were  distinguished  by  the  Romans, — the 
country  seat,  villa  pseudoiirbajia,  and  the  farmhouse,  villa  rus- 
tica.  The  former  was  a  city  house,  adapted  to  rural  conditions; 
the  arrangements  of  the  latter  were  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  farm  life. 

The  country  seats  manifested  a  greater  diversity  of  plan  than 
the  city  residences.  They  were  relatively  larger,  containing 
spacious  colonnades  and  gardens ;  as  the  proprietor  was  un- 
restricted in  regard  to  space,  not  being  confined  to  the  limits 
of  a  lot,  fuller  opportunity  was  afforded  for  the  display  of  indi- 
vidual taste  in  the  arrangement  of  rooms.  We  can  understand 
from  the  letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  describing  his  two  villas 
at  Laurentum  and  Tifernum  Tiberinum  (now  Citta  di  Castello), 
and  from  the  remains  of  the  villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli,  how  far 
individuality  might  assert  itself  in  the  planning  and  building  of 
a  country  home. 

The  main  entrance  of  a  country  seat,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
should  lead  directly  to  a  peristyle ;  one  or  more  atriums  might 
be  placed  further  back.  The  living  rooms  would  be  grouped 
about  the  central  spaces  in  the  way  that  would  best  suit  the 
configuration  of  the  ground  and  meet  the  wishes  of  the  owner. 
In  farmhouses  there  would  naturally  be  a  court  near  the  en- 
trance ;  and  the  hearth,  as  we  have  seen,  down  to  the  latest 
times,  was  placed  in  the  room  that  corresponded  with  the  atrium 
of  the  city  house.  In  most  parts  of  Italy  a  large  farmhouse 
would  contain  appliances  for  making  wine  and  oil. 

The  arrangement  of  the  two  types  of  country  house  in  the 
vicinity  of  Pompeii  may  be  briefly  illustrated  by  reference  to 
an  example  of  each,  the  villa  of  Diomedes  and  the  farmhouse 
recently  excavated  at  Boscoreale. 

355 


356 


POMPEII 


2    *    s    s    to  /J  rt   /f 


The  location  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes,  beyond  the  last  group 

of  tombs  at  the  left 
of  the  road  lead- 
ing from  the  Her- 
culaneum  Gate,  is 
indicated  in  PlanV. 
An  extensive  estab- 
lishment similar  in 
character,  the  so- 
called  villa  of  Cic- 
ero, lies  nearer  the 
Gate  on  the  same 
side  of  the  road; 
on  the  right  there 
is  a  third  villa,  of 
which  only  a  small 
part  has  been  un- 
covered. The 
three  seem  to  have 
belonged  to  a  series 
of  country  seats  sit- 
uated on  the  ridge 
that  extends  back 
from  Pompeii  in 
the  direction  of  Ve- 
suvius. The  villa 
of  Diomedes,  exca- 
vated in  1771-74, 
received  its  name 
from  the  tomb  of 
Marcus  Arrius  Di- 
omedes, facing  the 
entrance,     on     the 


Plan  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes. 


Fig.  iJ 

I.  Steps. 

3.  Peristyle. 

8.  Tablinum. 

10.  Exedra. 

12.  Dining  room. 

14.  Sleeping  room,  with  anteroom 

(13).  the  lower  part. 

15.  Passage  leading   to  a   garden    e,f,g,h.    Colonnade  enclosing  a     fPlpr)    \7     A.l\ 

at  the  level  of  the  street.  large  garden.  '   T"     / 

17.    Small  court,  with   hearth   (e)  /',  k,  I,  m.    Rooms.  The   frOUt  of   thc 

and  swimming  tank  {_Q.  r.    Fishpond. 

i8.    Storeroom.  j.    Arbor. 


19-21.    Bath.     (19.  Apodyterium. 

20.    Tepidarium.      21.   Cal- 

darium.) 
22.    Kitchen. 
26.    Colonnade,    facing    a   terrace     OppOsitC        sidc        of 

(28)  over  the  front  rooms  of        ,        r^  ,       n^  i 

the  lower  part.  thc  Strcct  of  Tombs 


villa  forms  a  sharp 


THE    VILLA    OF    DIOMELES  357 

angle  with  the  street.  The  orientation  of  the  building  was  de- 
termined by  an  abrupt  descent  in  the  ground,  which  runs  across 
the  middle  and  divides  it  into  two  parts.  The  front  part,  the 
rooms  of  which  are  numbered  on  the  plan  (Fig.  183),  is  a  few 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  street  at  the  entrance.  The  rear  por- 
tion, as  may  be  seen  from  our  section  (Fig.  184),  is  considerably 
lower;  on  the  plan  the  rooms  of  this  portion  are  designated  by 
letters.  From  traces  of  the  second  style  of  decoration  found  in 
two  of  the  rooms,  and  from  the  character  of  the  masonry,  we 
infer  that  the  villa  was  built  in  Roman  times,  but  before  the 
reign  of  Augustus. 

In  front  of  the  door  was  a  narrow  porch  (Fig.  184).  The 
door  opened  directly  into  the  peristyle  (3  on  the  plan),  in  the 
middle  of  which  was  a  garden.  At  the  left  is  a  small  triangular 
court  (17)  containing  a  swimming  tank  (  ^)  and  a  hearth  (e)  on 
which  a  kettle  and  several  pots  were  found ;  the  Romans  par- 
took of  warm  refreshments  after  a  bath.  The  wall  back  of  the 
swimming  tank  was  in  part  decorated  with  a  garden  scene,  not 
unlike  those  in  the  frigidariums  of  the  two  older  public  baths. 
Over  the  tank  was  a  roof  supported  by  two  columns,  and  on  the 
other  two  sides  of  the  court  there  was  a  low  but  well  propor- 
tioned colonnade. 

The  arrangements  of  the  bath  were  unusually  complete,  com- 
prising an  apodyterium  (19),  a  tepidarium  (20),  and  a  caldarium 
(21),  from  which  the  tepidarium  was  warmed  by  means  of  an 
opening  in  the  wall ;  the  caldarium  had  a  hollow  floor  and  walls, 
and  was  heated  from  the  kitchen  (22).  In  the  tepidarium  were 
found  four  panes  of  glass  about  10.^  inches  square,  together 
with  the  remains  of  the  wooden  frame  in  which  they  were  set. 
The  caldarium,  like  those  of  the  public  baths,  had  a  bath  basin 
and  a  semicircular  niche  for  the  labrum. 

A  small  oven  stands  on  one  end  of  the  hearth  in  the  kitchen, 
and  a  stone  table  is  built  against  the  wall  on  the  long  side.  The 
room  in  the  corner  (23)  was  used  as  a  reservoir  for  water,  which 
was  brought  into  it  by  means  of  a  feed  pipe  and  thence  distrib- 
uted through  smaller  pipes  leading  to  the  bath  rooms  and  other 
parts  of  the  house. 

At  the  left  of  the  peristyle  is  a  passage  (15)  leading  to  a  gar- 


358 


POMPEII 


den  which  has  not  yet  been  excavated.  The  only  apartment  of 
special  interest  in  this  portion  of  the  house  is  the  semicircular 
sleeping  room  (14)  built  out  into  the  garden.  It  faced  the  south, 
and  had  three  large  windows ;  it  was  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  house  by  an  anteroom,  procoeton  (13),  at  one  end  of  which 
is  a  small  division  (yS)  designed  for  the  bed  of  an  attendant.  In 
the  semicircular  room  are  an  alcove  for  a  bed  (7)  and  a  station- 
ary wash  bowl  of  masonry  (8).  The  plan  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
bedroom  in  Pliny's  villa  at  Laurentum.  Another  sleeping  room 
(9)  was  provided  with  both  a  large  and  a  small  door  (p.  261). 

The  large  room  (8)  at  the  rear  of  the  peristyle  may  be  loosely 
called  a  tablinum ;  it  could  be  closed  at  the  rear.     Back  of  the 


Kiylit  anil  of  colonnade  (j,  h) 


Front  of       Kooni  under  the  terrace  (0 
colonnade  (d) 

Fig.  184. —  Longitudinal  section  of 


tablinum  was  originally  a  colonnade  (26),  which  was  later  turned 
into  a  corridor,  with  rooms  at  either  end ;  the  original  form  is 
assumed  in  our  restoration.  Beyond  the  colonnade  was  a  broad 
terrace  (28)  extending  to  the  edge  of  the  garden.  It  commanded 
a  magnificent  view  of  Stabiae,  the  coast  in  the  direction  of 
Sorrento,  and  the  Bay.  Connected  with  it  was  an  unroofed 
promenade  over  the  colonnade  {e,f,  g,  li)  surrounding  the  large 
garden  below.  A  rectangular  room  (27,  indicated  on  the  plan 
but  not  in  the  restoration)  was  afterwards  built  on  the  terrace. 

Members  of  the  family  could  pass  into  the  lower  portion  of 
the  villa  by  means  of  a  stairway,  at  b\  the  slaves  could  use  a 


THE   VILLA   OF   DIOMEDES 


359 


long  corridor  (a),  which  was  more  directly  connected  with  the 
domestic  apartments.  The  flat  roof  of  the  quadrangular  colon- 
nade {e,  f,  g,  h)  was  carried  on  the  outside  by  a  wall,  on  the 
inside  by  square  pillars  (Fig.  184).  The  rooms  (/,  /•)  opening 
into  the  front  of  the  colonnade  were  vaulted,  and  the  decoration, 
in  the  last  style,  is  well  preserved;  the  ceiling  of  the  corner 
rooms  (/,  m)  is  flat,  and  the  decoration  of  one  of  them  (/)  is 
noteworthy ;  green  and  red  stars  are  painted  on  a  white  ground. 
In  the  narrow  space  between  /  and  c  a  cistern  was  built,  from 
which  water  could  be  drawn  by  means  of  a  faucet  in  front. 

At  the  opposite  corners  of  the  colonnade  were  two  airy  garden 
rooms  (;/,  0).     Outside  of  the  left  arm  (t-, /)  was  a  broad  walk 


''^ 


■  CLtet-^*^/ 


the  villa  of  Diomedes,  restored. 


(//),  at  the  upper  end  of  which  were  steps  leading  to  the  garden 
above. 

The  garden  enclosed  by  the  colonnade  was  planted  with  trees, 
charred  remains  of  which  were  found  at  the  time  of  excavation. 
In  the  middle  was  a  fish  pond  (r),  in  which  was  a  fountain. 
Back  of  it  was  a  platform,  over  which  vines  were  trained  on  a 
framework  supported  by  six  columns,  making  a  pleasant  arbor 
in  which  meals  were  doubtless  often  served. 

The  door  at  the  rear  of  the  garden  led  into  the  fields.  Near 
it  were  found  the  skeletons  of  two  men.  One  of  them  had  a 
large  key,  doubtless  the  key  of  this  door ;  he  wore  a  gold  ring 


36o  POMPEII 

on  his  finger,  and  was  carrying  a  considerable  sum  of  money  — 
ten  gold  and  eighty-eight  silver  coins.  He  was  probably  the 
master  of  the  house  who  had  started  out,  accompanied  by  a 
single  slave,  in  order  to  find  means  of  escape. 

The  floor  of  the  three  sides  of  the  colonnade  was  a  few  feet 
higher  than  that  of  the  front.  Underneath  was  a  wine  cellar, 
lighted  by  small  windows  in  the  wall  on  the  side  of  the  garden ; 
it  contained  a  large  number  of  amphorae. 

At  the  time  of  the  eruption  many  members  of  the  family 
took  refuge  in  the  cellar.  Here  were  found  the  skeletons  of 
eighteen  adults  and  two  children:  at  the  time  of  excavation  the 
impressions  of  their  bodies,  and  in  some  instances  traces  of 
the  clothing,  could  be  seen  in  the  hardened  ashes.  Among  the 
women  was  one  adorned  with  two  necklaces  and  two  arm  bands, 
besides  four  gold  rings  and  two  of  silver.  The  victims  were 
suffocated  by  the  damp  ashes  that  drifted  in  through  the  small 
windows.  According  to  the  report  of  the  excavations,  fourteen 
skeletons  of  men  were  found  in  other  parts  of  the  house,  to- 
gether with  the  skeletons  of  a  dos  and  a  goat. 


I 


KEY    TO    PLAN    IV 


A.  Court. 

1,5.     Cistern  curbs. 

2.  Wash  basin  of  masonry. 

3.  Lead  reservoir  from  which  water 

was  conducted  to  the  reser- 
voir in  the  kitchen  supplying 
the  bath. 

4.  Steps  leading  to  the  reservoir. 

B.  Kitchen. 

1.  Hearth. 

2.  Reservoir  containing  water  for 

the  batli. 

3.  Stairway  to  rooms  over  the  bath . 

4.  Entrance   to    cellar    under    tlie 

inner  end  of  the  iirst  wine 
press,  in  which  were  the 
fastenings  of  the  standard  of 
the  press  beam. 

C-F.     Bath. 

C.  Furnace  room. 

D.  Apodyterium. 

E.  Tepidarium. 

F.  Caldarium. 

H.    Stable. 

J.   Tool  Room. 

K,  L.    Sleeping   Rooms. 

N.   Dining  Room. 

M.   Anteroom. 

O.    Bakery. 

1.  Mill. 

2.  Oven. 

P.   Room  with  Two  Wine  Presses. 
I,  I.    Foundations  of  the  presses. 
1,  2,  2.    Receptacles   for  the  grape 
juice,  dolia. 

3.  Cistern  for  the  product  of  the 

second  pressing,  laais. 

4.  Holes  for  the  standards  of  the 

press  beams. 

5.  5.     Holes   for  the  posts  at   the 


ends  of  the  two  windlasses 
used  in  raising  and  lowering 
the  press  beams. 
6.  Pit  alTording  access  to  the  frame- 
work by  which  the  windlass 
posts  were  tied  down. 

Q.     Corridor. 

I.    Round  vats,  dolia. 

R.  Court  for  the  Fermentation 
OF  Wine. 

1.  Channel    for    the    fresh    grape 

juice  coming  from  P. 

2.  Fermentation  vats,  dolia. 

3.  Lead  kettle  over  a  fireplace. 

4.  Cistern  curb. 

S.     Barn,  nicbilariiiin  (?). 

T.    Threshing  Floor,  area. 

U.  Open  Cistern  for  the  Water 
falling  on  the  threshing 
Floor. 

V-V.   Sleeping  Rooms. 

W.  Entrance  to  Cellar  under 
THE  Lnner  End  of  the  Sec- 
ond Wine  Press  ;  see  B.  4. 

X.   Room  with  Hand  Mill. 

Y.   Room  with  Oil  Press. 

1 .  Foundation  of  the  press. 

2.  Hole   for   the  standard   of  the 

press  beam. 

3.  Entrance     to     cellar    with    ap- 

pliances for  securing  the  press 
beam. 

4.  Holes  for  the  w-indlass  posts. 

5.  Hole    affording    access    to    the 

fastenings     of    the    windlass 
posts. 

6.  Receptacle  for  the  oil,  ge»iellar. 

Z.  Room  containing  the  Olive 
Crusher, 


PLAN    IV. —  PLAN    OF   THE   VILLA   RUSTICA   AT   BOSCOREALE, 


CHAPTER    XLV 

THE   VILLA   RUSTIC  A   AT  BOSCOREALE 

Less  than  two  miles  north  of  Pompeii,  near  the  village  of  Bos- 
coreale,  a  farmhouse  was  excavated  in  1893-94  on  the  property 
of  Vincenzo  de  Prisco.  In  the  last  century  similar  buildings 
were  brought  to  light  in  the  vicinity  of  Castellammare,  but  they 
were  covered  up  again.  Especial  importance  attaches  to  this 
villa  rustica,  both  on  account  of  the  extreme  rarity  of  examples 
of  the  type  and  because  of  the  character  of  the  remains, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  determine  the  arrangements  with 
certainty. 

The  living  rooms,  the  stable,  and  the  rooms  used  for  the 
making  of  wine  and  oil  were  all  under  one  roof.  The  size  of 
the  building  is  not  so  great  as  might  have  been  assumed  from 
the  variety  of  purposes  which  it  served  ;  the  enclosed  area, 
exclusive  of  the  threshing  floor,  measures  about  130  by  82  feet. 
The  plan  (Plan  IV)  is  regular,  the  principal  entrance  being  near 
the  middle  of  the  southwest  side. 

The  entrance  was  wide  enough  for  carts  and  wagons,  which 
were  kept  in  the  court  {A).  Along  three  sides  of  the  court  ran 
a  colonnade,  over  which  at  the  front  were  upper  rooms ;  the 
roof  on  the  left  side  and  the  rear  rested  on  columns  connected 
by  a  parapet.  Under  the  colonnade  at  the  further  corner  is  a 
cistern  curb  (i),  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  large  wash  basin  of 
masonry  (2);  on  the  other  is  a  pillar  supporting  a  small  reservoir 
of  lead  (3).  The  reservoir,  reached  by  means  of  steps  (4),  was 
filled  from  the  cistern. 

In  a  Roman  farmhouse  the  kitchen  was  the  large,  central 
room  (p.  253).  Vitruvius  recommends  that  it  be  placed  on  the 
warmest  side  of  the  court ;  and  in  our  villa  rustica  it  lies  at  the 
north  corner  {B)  where,  in  winter,  it  would  receive  the  full 
benefit  of  the  sunshine.     The  hearth  (i),  on  which  remains  of 

36. 


362 


POMPEII 


fire  were  found,  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  room  ;  in  the  wall 
at  the  rear  is  a  niche,  ornamented  to  resemble  the  fagade  of  a 
diminutive  temple,  in  which  were  placed  the  images  of  the 
household  gods. 

A  large  door  in  the  right  wall  of  the  kitchen  opened  into  the 
stable  (//).  Near  it  was  a  stairway  (3)  leading  to  upper  rooms; 
in  the  corner  was  a  pit  (4)  affording  access  to  a  small  cellar  in 
which  the  standard  of  the  press  beam  in  the  adjoining  room 
(/*,  4)  was  made  fast.  In  the  opposite  corner  was  a  reservoir 
of  lead  (2)  standing  on  a  foundation  of  masonry;  it  received 
water  from  the  reservoir  in  the  court  (^,3)  and  supplied  the 
bath.  On  the  same  side  of  the  room  is  the  entrance  to  the  bath 
and  to  the  closet  {G). 

The  arrangements  of  this  bath  are  in  a  better  state  of  preser- 
vation than  those  of  any  other  Roman  bath  yet  discovered;  the 

tank  and  reservoir  with 
the  connecting  pipes 
may  now  be  seen  at 
Pompeii  in  the  little 
Museum  near  the  Fo- 
rum fitted  up  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  the  objects 
found  in  this  villa.  The 
l)ath  rooms  comprised 
an  apodyterium  (Z?), 
a  tepidarium  {E),  and 
a  caldarium  (^F)  with  a 
bath  basin  at  one  end 
and  a  labrum  in  a  semi- 
circular recess  at  the  other.  The  bath  was  heated  from  a  small 
furnace  room  {C).  Over  the  hot  air  flue  leading  from  the  fur- 
nace into  the  hollow  space  under  the  floor  of  the  caldarium  was 
a  water  heater  in  the  form  of  a  half  cylinder  similar  to  the  one 
found  in  the  Stabian  Baths  (p.  194).  The  tepidarium,  as  well 
as  the  caldarium,  had  a  hollow  floor  and  walls. 

Over  the  furnace  stood  a  round  lead  tank,  the  lower  part  of 
which  was  encased  in  masonry ;  the  pipes  connecting  it  with 
the  reservoir  in  the  corner  of  the  kitchen  and   with   the  bath 


Fig.   185. —  Hot  water  tank  and  reser\'oir  for  supplying 
the  bath  in  the  villa  lustica  at  Boscoreale. 


THE   VILLA    RUSTICA   AT    BOSCOREALE  363 

rooms  were  found  in  place,  and  are  shown  in  Fig.  185.  The 
middle  pipe  supplied  the  tank  with  cold  water ;  the  flow  could 
be  regulated  by  means  of  a  stopcock.  The  lower  pipe  started 
from  the  reservoir,  but  before  reaching  the  tank  was  divided, 
the  left  arm  leading  into  the  tank,  the  other  into  the  bath  basin. 
As  there  were  stopcocks  in  the  main  pipe  and  in  the  arm 
entering  the  tank,  by  adjusting  these  the  bath  basin  could  be 
supplied  with  either  hot  or  cold  water  through  a  single  pipe. 
The  upper  pipe  was  divided  in  the  same  way,  one  arm  leading 
to  the  labrum.  In  the  public  baths  there  was  a  separate  tank 
for  lukewarm  water ;  here  a  moderate  temperature  was  obtained 
by  mixing  hot  and  cold  water. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  tank  (seen  at  the  right)  is  a  short  bib- 
cock used  when  the  water  was  drawn  off.  On  the  side  of  the 
reservoir  we  see  the  end  of  the  feed  pipe  leading  from  the 
reservoir  in  the  court ;  at  the  right  is  a  supply  pipe  which  con- 
ducted to  the  stable  (//)  water  not  needed  for  the  bath. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  court  is  a  tool  room  {J),  in  which 
were  found  remains  of  tools ;  several  sickles  were  hanging  on 
the  walls.  Next  are  two  sleeping  rooms  {K,  L)\  a  passage 
between  them  leads  to  the  bakery,  with  a  single  mill  ( i )  and 
oven  (2).  In  the  corner  is  a  dining  room  {N),  in  which  the 
remains  of  three  couches  were  found;  it  was  separated  from  the 
court  by  an  anteroom  (i1/). 

Over  the  colonnade  on  the  front  side  of  the  court  was  a  sleep- 
ing room  with  a  large  room  adjoining,  perhaps  the  bedroom  of 
the  overseer,  villicus,  which,  according  to  Varro  should  be  near 
the  entrance. 

The  oblong  room  at  the  northeast  side  of  the  court  contained 
appliances  for  making  wine.  At  each  end  was  a  large  press 
with  a  raised  floor  {forum,  i ).  The  presses  were  operated  on 
the  same  principle  as  that  previously  described  (p.  336,  Fig.  168). 

At  the  rear  of  each  press  was  a  strong  standard  {arbor,  4),  to 
which  the  inner  end  of  the  press  beam  {prelum^  was  attached. 
In  front  stood  two  posts  {stipites,  5-5),  to  which  were  fitted  the 
ends  of  a  horizontal  windlass.  By  means  of  a  pulley  and  a  rope 
passed  around  the  windlass,  the  outer  end  of  the  press  beam 
could  be  raised  or  lowered.     When  it  was  lowered  in  order  to 


364  POMPEII 

increase  the  pressure  on  the  grapes,  both  standard  and  windlass 
posts  would  be  pulled  out  of  the  ground  unless  firmly  braced. 
Under  the  rear  of  each  press  was  a  small  cellar,  in  which  was 
placed  a  framework  for  holding  the  standard  in  place.  One 
was  entered  from  a  pit  in  the  corner  of  the  kitchen  {B,  4),  the 
other  from  a  similar  depression  in  a  small  separate  room  (  W) ; 
at  6  was  a  pit  for  fastening  the  windlass  posts. 

The  grape  juice  ran  into  round  vats  (2,  2)  sunk  in  the  ground. 
In  front  of  the  first  press  are  two,  in  front  of  the  second  only- 
one  ;  a  cistern  of  which  the  curb  (3)  is  indicated  on  the  plan, 
here  takes  the  place  of  the  other  vat.  The  cistern  could  be  filled 
also  from  the  first  press  by  means  of  a  lead  pipe  under  the  floor. 
The  round  vats  were  for  the  pure  juice  of  the  first  pressing. 
Into  the  other  was  conducted  the  product  of  the  second  press- 
ing;  the  remains  of  the  grapes,  after  the  juice  had  ceased  to 
flow,  were  drenched  with  water  and  again  subjected  to  pressure. 

In  Pliny's  "  Natural  History"  (XIV.  xxi.  136)  we  read  that  in 
Campania  the  best  wine  underwent  fermentation  in  the  open  air, 
exposed  to  sun,  rain,  and  wind.  This  villa  supplies  an  interest- 
ing confirmation  of  the  statement ;  the  round  fermentation  vats 
fill  a  large  court  {R),  the  walls  of  which  are  pierced  with  open- 
ings in  order  to  give  readier  access  to  the  wind.  Along  one  side 
runs  a  channel  of  masonry  about  three  feet  above  the  ground  ( i), 
protected  by  a  narrow  roof ;  thence  the  grape  juice  was  distrib- 
uted through  lead  pipes  to  the  vats.  During  the  vintage  season, 
the  inner  end  of  the  channel  was  connected  with  the  press  room 
by  means  of  a  temporary  pipe  or  channel  entering  the  wall  above 
the  cistern  {P,  3). 

The  surface  of  this  court  is  higher  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
building ;  instead  of  excavating  in  order  to  set  the  large  earthen 
vats  in  the  ground,  the  proprietor  filled  in  with  earth  around 
them.  In  one  corner  is  a  lead  kettle  (3)  with  a  place  for  building 
a  fire  underneath  ;  perhaps  wine  was  heated  in  it.  The  vats  in 
the  court  seem  not  to  have  been  used  exclusively  for  wine.  In 
one  were  found  remains  of  wheat,  in  another  of  millet.  Other 
vats  stood  in  the  passageway  on  the  side  of  the  court  {O,  i). 

Three  of  the  small  rooms  toward  the  rear  were  sleeping  rooms 
(  V-  V).     In  another  (X)  was  found  a  hand  mill.     At  the  end  of 


THE   VILLA    RUSTICA   AT   BOSCOREALE  365 

the  passageway  was  a  double  room  containing  the  appHances 
for  making  oil,  a  press  (in  V)  and  a  crusher  (in  Z).  The  press 
was  like  the  wine  press  described  above,  only  much  smaller,  with 
a  raised  floor  (i),  a  standard  for  the  press  beam  (2),  a  pit  for 
bracing  the  standard  of  the  press  beam  (3),  two  posts  at  the 
ends  of  the  windlass  (4,  4),  a  pit  from  which  a  crosspiece  con- 
necting these  posts  could  be  reached,  and  a  vat  (6)  at  one  side 
for  receiving  the  oil.  This  vat,  for  some  reason  not  understood, 
was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  partition  in  the  middle. 


B^MO-\n^ 


Fig.  186. —  Olive  crusher. 

The  olive  crusher,  trapctum,  now  in  the  Museum  at  Pompeii 
mentioned  above,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration 
(Fig.  186).  It  was  designed  to  separate  the  pulp  of  the  olives 
from  the  stones,  which  were  thought  to  impair  the  flavor  of  the 
oil.  It  consists  of  a  deep  circular  basin  of  lava,  so  hollowed 
out  as  to  leave  in  the  centre  a  strong  standard  of  the  stone, 
miliarium.  In  the  top  of  this  standard  was  set  an-  iron  pin, 
on  which  was  fitted  a  revolving  wooden  crosspiece  (shown  in 
Fig.  186,  restored).  This  carried  two  wheels  of  lava,  having  the 
shape  of  half  a  lens,  which  travelled  in  the  basin.  The  wheels 
were  carefully  balanced  so  that  they  would  not  press  against 
the  side  of  the  basin  and  crush  the  stones  of  the  olives. 


366 


POMPEII 


In  the  long  room  5  remains  of  bean  straw  and  parts  of  a 
wagon  were  found.  South  of  it  is  the  threshing  floor  (7"),  the 
surface  of  which  is  raised  above  the  ground  and  covered  with 
Signia  pavement.  The  water  that  fell  upon  the  threshing  floor 
was  conducted  to  a  small  open  cistern  {U). 

For  at  least  a  part  of  the  year  the  proprietor  of  the  villa 
probably  lived  in  it.  So  elaborate  a  bath  would  not  have  been 
built  for  the  use  of  slaves  ;  and  in  the  second  story  was  a  modest 
but  comfortable  series  of  apartments  (over  V,  W,  X,  and  part 


Fig.  187.  — Silver  patera  with  a  representation  of  the  city  of  Alexandria  in  high  relief. 
From  the  Boscoreale  treasure. 


of  Q),  apparently  designed  for  the  master's  use,  as  was  also  the 
dining  room  (.V)  with  K  2ii\d  L. 

In  a  place  where  such  a  find  would  least  have  been  antici- 
pated—  the  cistern  in  the  room  of  the  wine  presses  —  was  made 
a  remarkable  discovery  of  treasure.  Here  a  man  had  taken 
refuge,  and  with  his  skeleton  were  found  about  a  thousand  gold 
coins,  four  gold  bracelets,  ear-rings,  a  gold  chain,  and  the  beauti- 
ful coUection  of  silver  ware  (p.  380)  afterwards  presented  by 
Baron  Rothschild  to  the  Louvre. 


CHAPTER    XLVI 


HOUSEHOLD   FURNITURE 


Much  less  large  furniture  has  been  found  at  Pompeii  than  is 
ordinarily  supposed.  In  not  a  single  sleeping  room  has  a  bed 
been  preserved  ;  and  in  only  one  of  all  the  dining  rooms  have 
sufficient  remains  of  the  dining  couches  been  found  to  make  it 
possible  to  reconstruct  them.     Beds,  couches,  chairs,  and  tables 


Ficr.  i88.— Dinins;  couch  with  bronze  mouniings,  the  wooden  frame  being  restored. 


were  ordinarily  of  wood,  which  crumbled  away,  leaving  slight 
traces.  Reference  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the  marble 
tables  standing  in  the  atrium,  and  occasionally  in  other  parts  of 
the  house.  Tables  of  bronze  are  infrequently  met  with,  while 
bronze  chairs  are  almost  as  rare  as  bronze  couches. 

Wood  was  not  a  suitable  material  for  many  classes  of  smaller 
articles,  and  these,  made  of  bronze,  clay,  glass,  or  stone,  are 

367 


368 


POxMPElI 


Fig.  189.  —  Round  marble  table. 


found  in  great  numbers.  Such  are  the  lamps,  the  bronze  lamp 
stands,  the  kitchen  utensils,  the  table  furnishings,  and  the  toilet 
articles  of  bronze,  ivory,  or  bone. 

The  wooden  frame  and  end  board  of  one  of  the  dining  couches 
just  mentioned  was  completely  charred,  but  the  form  was  clearly 

indicated,  and  the  wood- 

'  'Illll'iiliiai        work    has   been   restored 

(Fig.  188).  The  couch 
is  now  in  the  Naples 
Museum,  as  are  also  the 
other  articles  of  furniture 
illustrated  in  this  chapter. 
The  half  figures  on  the 
front  of  the  end  board, 
shown  more  plainly  in  the 
detail  at  the  left  of  the 
illustration,  were  cast ; 
the  rest  of  the  mounting  was  irpousse  wox'k.  The  bronze  on  the 
side  toward  the  table  was  inlaid  with  silver.  The  end  boards 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  up- 
per couch  and  the  foot  of  the  lower 
one  (p.  263);  the  middle  couch 
did  not  have  a  raised  end.  The 
mattress  rested  on  straps  stretched 
across  the  frame.  The  dining 
room  in  which  the  couches  were 
found  adjoins  the  tablinum  of  a 
house  in  the  seventh  Region  (VII. 
ii.  18). 

The  carved  marble  supports  of 
a  gartibulum  are  shown  in  Fig. 
121  ;  a  complete  table  of  a  plainer 

type  is  seen  in  Plate  VII.  An  example  of  a  round  marble  table, 
found  in  1827  in  a  house  near  the  Forum,  is  presented  in  Fig. 
189.  The  three  legs  are  carved  to  represent  those  of  lions,  a 
lion's  head  being  placed  at  the  top  of  each.  A  table  of  similar 
design  was  found  in  the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii, 
with  traces  of  yellow  color  on  the  manes  of  the  lions  (p.  326). 


Fig.  190.  —  Carved  table  leg,  found  in 
the  second  peristyle  of  the  house 
of  the  Faun. 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


369 


Among  the  best  examples  of  ornamental  carving  is  the  marble 
table  leg  in  the  form  of  a  sphinx,  found  in  the  second  peristyle 
of  the  house  of  the  Faun  (Fig.  190).  Effective  also  is  the  bold 
carving  of  the  gartibulum  in  the  north  atrium  of  the  house  of 
Siricus  (VII.  i.  25). 

Small  tables  or  stands  of  bronze  supported  by  three  slender 
legs  were  called  tri- 
pods. The  top  was 
flat,  but  not  infre- 
quently surrounded  by 
a  deep  rim,  making  a 
convenient  receptacle 
for  Hght  objects.  The 
rim  of  the  example 
shown  in  Fig.  191  is 
ornamented  with  fes- 
toons and  bucrania, 
while  the  upper  parts 
of  the  legs  are  modelled 
to  represent  winged 
sphinxes.  This  stand 
was  not  found  in  the 
temple  of  Isis,  as  is 
often  stated,  but  proba- 
bly in  Herculaneum.     > 

The  bisellium,  the 
'seat  of  double  width,' 
was  a  chair  of  simple 
design  without  a  back, 
used  in  the  Theatre  and 
Amphitheatre  by  mem- 
bers of  the  city  council 
and  others  upon  whom 
the  "  honor  of  the  bisel- 
lium "  had  been  con- 
ferred. The  remains  of  one  with  bronze  mountings  have  been 
restored.  The  restoration,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  correct 
in  all  particulars,  and  instead  of  presenting  it  we  may  refer  the 


Fig.  191.- 


Bronze  stand  with  an  ornamented  rim  around 
the  top. 


370 


POMPEII 


Fig.  192.- 


■  Lamps  of  the  simplest  form,  with  one 
nozzle. 


reader  to  the  somewhat  conventional  bisellium  carved  on  the 
tomb  of  Calventius  Quietus  (Fig.  242). 

The  lamps  are  found  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.     The  essen- 
tial parts  are  the  body,  containing  the  oil,  which  was  poured  in 

through  an  opening  in  the 
top,  and  the  nozzle  with 
a  hole  for  the  wick  (Fig. 
192).  Hand  lamps  were 
usually  provided  with  a 
handle,  hanging  lamps 
with  projections  contain- 
ing holes  through  which 
the  chains  could  be  passed. 
The  opening  for  the  admission  of  oil  was  often  closed  by  an 
ornamental  cover  (Figs.  195,  196).  In  front  of  it,  near  the  base 
of  the  nozzle,  was  frequently  a  much  smaller  orifice  through 
which  a  large  needle  could  be  inserted  to  pick  up  the  wick  when 
it  had  burned  out  and 
sunk  back  into  the  oil, 
and  air  could  be  admit- 
ted when  the  cover  was 
closed. 

The  material  of  the 
lamps  was  clay  or  bronze. 
The  bronze  lamps  were 
more  costly  and  ordinarily 
more  freely  ornamented. 
Those   of  clay  were  left 

unglazed,  or  covered  with  a  red  glazing  Wee  that  of  the  Arretian 
ware ;   lamps  with  a  greenish  glaze  are  occasionally  found. 

The  light  furnished  by  the  wicks  was  dim  and  smoky.      A 
more  brilHant  light  was  obtained  by  increasing  the  number  of 


Fig.  193.  —  Lamps  with  two  nozzles. 
At  the  left,  a  hanging  lamp  ;  at  the  right,  a  hand  lamp. 


vrsv  /?" 


Fig.  194.  —  Lamps  with  more  than  two  nozzles. 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


171 


195.  —  Bronze    lamps    with    ornamental 
covers  attached  to  a  chain. 


nozzles.  Lamps  with  two  nozzles  are  often  found.  These  were 
sometimes  placed  at  ime  end,  the  handle  being  at  the  other ; 
sometimes  in  the  case  of  hanging  lamps,  at  opposite  ends,  as  in 
the  example  shown  in  Fig.  193. 

Lamps  with  several  nozzles  are  not  infrequently  met  with. 
The  shape  is  often  circular,  as  in  two  of  the  examples  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  194,  one  of 
which  had  six  wicks,  the  other 
twelve.  Sometimes  a  more 
ornamental  form  was  adopted. 
Lamps  having  the  shape  of  a 
boat  are  not  uncommon ;  the  Fi 
one  represented  in  Fig.  194 
was  provided  with  nozzles  for  fourteen  wicks. 

The  hanging  lamps  were  sometimes  made  with  a  single  nozzle, 
as  the  curious  one  having  the  shape  of  a  mask  shown  in  Fig.  197, 
at  the  left;  sometimes  with  two  nozzles  (Fig.  193).  Bronze 
hanging"  lamps  with  three  arms,  each  of  which  contained  a  place 

for  a  wick,  are  occa- 
sionally found ;  an  ex- 
ample is  given  in  Fig. 
197,  at  the  right.  Still 
more  elaborate  are 
those  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  nozzles,  as  the 
one  represented  in  the 
same  illustration,  which 
had  nine  wicks. 

The    name    of    the 

maker  is  often  stamped 

upon  the  bottom  of  the  lamp,  sometimes  in  the  nominative  case, 

as  PuLCHER,  in  the  example  given  in  Fig.  192,  more  often  in  the 

genitive  and  in  an  abbreviated  form. 

The  variety  displayed  in  the  ornamentation  of  lamps  was  as 
great  as  that  manifested  in  the  forms.  Ornament  was  applied  to 
all  parts, —the  body,  the  handle,  the  cover,  and  even  the  nozzle. 
The  covers  of  the  two  bronze  lamps  shown  in  Fig.  196  are 
adorned  with  figures.     On   one  is  a  Cupid  struggling  with  a 


Fig.  196. 


-Bronze  lamps  with  covers  ornamented  with 
figures. 


372 


POMPEII 


goose.  The  chain  attached  to  the  right  hand  of  the  figure  on 
the  other  is  fastened  to  a  hooked  needle  for  puUing  out  the 
wick. 

The  object  of  which  we  give  a  representation  in  Fig.    198, 
often  erroneously  classed  as  a  lamp,  is  a  nursing  bottle,  biberon. 


Fig.  197.  —  Three  hanging  lamps. 
The  one  at  the  left  and  the  middle  one  are  presented  in  two  views. 


'Yk.wo 


The  material  is  clay,  and  the  figure  of  a  gladiator  is  stamped  on 
it,  symbolizing  the  hope  that  the  infant  will  develop  strength 
and  vigor.  On  some  bottles  of  this  kind  the  figure  of  a  thriving 
child  is  seen,  on  others  a  mother  suckling  a  child. 

Three  kinds  of  supports  for  lamps  may  be  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  their  size  :  lamp  standards,  which 
stood  on  the  floor  and  ranged  in  height  from 
2\  to  5  feet ;  lamp  holders,  not  far  from  20 
inches  high,  which  were  placed  on  tables  ;  and 
small  lamp  stands,  also  used  on  the  table. 
The  general  term  candclabnmi  was  originally 
applied  to  candle  holders  containing  several 
candles  (candc/ac).  Such  candle  holders  have 
been  found  in  Etruscan  graves,  but  the  can- 
delabra met  with  at  Pompeii  were  all  designed  to  carry  lamps. 

The  lamp  standards,  of  bronze,  are  often  of  graceful  propor- 
tions and  ornamented  in  good  taste.  The  feet  are  modelled  to 
represent  the  claws  (Fig.  199)  or  hoofs  of  animals.     The  slender 


Fig.  198.  —  A    nursing 
bottle. 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


373 


shaft  rises  sometimes  directly  from  the  union  of  the  three  legs 
at  the  centre,  sometimes  from  a  round,  ornamented  disk  resting 
on  the  legs.  Above  the  shaft  is  usually  an  ornamental  form,  a 
sphinx,  as  in  our  illustration,  a  head, 
or  a  vase-like  capital  sustaining  the 
round  flat  top  on  which  the  lamp 
rested.  Occasionally  the  shaft  is  re- 
placed by  a  conventional  plant  form. 

Adjustable  standards  also  occur; 
the  upper  part  slides  up  and  down  in 
the  hollow  shaft  of  the  lower  part, 
so  that  the  height  can  be  changed 
at  will. 

The  bronze  lamp  holders  were 
sometimes  designed  to  support  a 
single  lamp  (Fig.  200).  Frequently 
the  main  part  divides  into  two 
branches,  each  of  which  sustains  a 
small  round  disk  for  a  lamp ;  often 
the  arms  or  branches  were  designed 
to  carry  hanging  lamps.  The  exam- 
ple shown  in  Fig.  201  is  from  the 
villa  of  Diomedes. 

In  the  lamp  holders  conventional 
plant  forms  are  more  frequently  met 
with  than  in  the  standards.  The 
trunk  of  a  tree  with  spreading 
branches  is  especially  common  (Fig. 
202). 

The  lamp  stands,  which  resemble 
diminutive  bronze  tables,  are  found 
in  a  pleasing  variety  of  form  and  or- 
nament. The  top  is  sometimes  a 
round  disk  resting  on  a  single  leg 
supported  by  three  feet ;  sometimes, 
as    in    the    example    presented    in    ^.  ^  ^\    r^. 

^         ^       .  Fig.  199. — Lamp  standard,  of  bronze. 

Fig.  203,  the  legs  are  carried  to  the 

top,  and  the  intervening  spaces  are  utilized  for  ornamentation. 


374 


POMPEII 


Fig.  200.  —  Lamp  holder  for  a 
hand  lamp. 


Fig.  201.  —  Lamp  holder  for  hanging 
lamps. 


Fig.  202.  —  Lamp  holder  in  the  form 
of  a  tree  trunk. 


Fig.  203.  —  Lamp  stand,  of  bronze. 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


375 


The  lamp  seen  in  this  ilkistration  is  the  same  as  that  shown 
more  clearly  in  Fig.  196,  at  the  right. 

Kitchen  utensils  of  bronze  and  red  earthenware  have  been 
found  in  great  quantity ;  table  furnishings  more  rarely.  A 
group  of  typical  examples  is  presented  in  Fig.  204.  The  forms 
are  so  similar  to  those  of  the  utensils  found  in  modern  house- 
holds that  few  words  of  explanation  are  needed. 


Fig.  204.  —  Bronze  utensils. 

a.   Kettle   mounted  on  a     r,  d.    Pails.  k.    Pitcher. 

tripod   ready    to  be     e.    Ladle.  «/.    Kitchen  spoon. 

placed  on  the  fire.       f.    Dipper.  «,  r.    Table  spoons. 

^,g,h,l.    Cooking  pots.      i,  t.    Baking    pans  for    o,p.    Frying  pans, 
small  cakes. 


.f.    Pastry  mould. 
g,  11.    Wine  ladles. 
r.   Two-handled  paa 


The  pastry  mould  (s)  is  of  good  size  and  neatly  finished,  and 
must  have  left  a  clear  impression.  Besides  the  two  types  of 
table  spoons  illustrated  here  {n,  v)  a  third  is  represented  by  ex- 
amples found  at  Pompeii,  the  cochlear,  which  had  a  bowl  at  one 


376 


POMPEII 


end   and  ran   out  into   a   point   at  the  other.     The  point  was 
used  in  picking  shellfish  out  of  their  shells,  the  bowl  in  eating 

eggs. 

The  two  long  ladles  were  used  in  dipping  wine  out  of  the 

mixing  bowl  into  the  cups.     The  ancients  ordinarily  drank  their 

wine  mingled  with  water ;  for  mixing  the 
liquids  they  used  a  large  bowl  of  earth- 
enware or  metal,  which  was  often  richly 
ornamented.  The  mixing  bowl  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  205  was  found  in  a  house 
on  Abbondanza  Street,  near  the  en- 
trance of  the  building  of  Eumachia.  It 
is  in  part  inlaid  with  silver,  and  nearly 
twentv-two  inches  high. 

Hot  water  was  often  preferred  for 
mixing  with  wine,  and  small  heaters 
of  ornamental  design  were  sometimes 
used  upon  the  table.  The  ancient 
name    for   these    utensils   is  autJiepsUy 

Fig.  205.- Mixing  bowl,  of  bronze   '  sclf-cookcr  ' ;    the  appropriateness   of 

in  part  inlaid  with  silver.  .      .  ^  1      r  i 

It  IS  apparent  frpm  an  example  found 
at  Pompeii,  in  which  the  coals  of  fire  were  entirely  concealed 
from  view. 


Fig.  206.  —  Water  heater  for  the  table,  view  and  section. 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


377 


This  heater  (Fig.  206)  has  the  form  of  an  urn.  In  the  mid- 
dle is  a  tube,  the  bottom  of  which  is  closed  by  a  diminutive 
grate  ;  the  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  section  at  the  right. 
In  this  tube  the  coals  were  placed,  and  when  the  water  in  the 
urn  was  hot,  it  could  be  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  faucet  at  the 
sidfe.     Back  of  the  faucet  is  a  small  vertical  vent  tube. 

In  some  cases  the  appearance  of  a  heater  was  more  suggestive 
of  its  purpose.  One  (Fig.  207)  has  the  form  of  an  ordinary 
brazier,  the  water  being  heated  in  the  hollow  space  about  the 


Fig.  207.  —  Water  heater  in 
the  form  uf  a  brazier. 


Fig.  208.  —  Water  heater  in  the 
form  of  a  brazier  representing 
a  diminutive  fortress. 


Combs. 


Fig.  209.  —  Appliances  for  the 
bath. 


fire  pan.  In  another  instance  (Fig.  208)  the  brazier  is  orna- 
mented with  towers  and  battlements  like  those  of  a  diminutive 
fortress ;  the  faucet  can  be  seen  in  our  illustration,  on  the 
left  side. 

An  interesting  group  of  toilet  appliances  for  the  bath  was 
found  in  the  Baths  north  of  the  Forum  (Fig.  209).  Hanging 
from  a  ring  were  an  unguent  flask,  four  scrapers  {strigiles),  and 
a  shallow  saucer  with  a  handle  in  which  the  unguent  was  poured 
out  when  it  was  to  be  applied.  One  of  the  scrapers  is  repeated 
in  a  side  view  at  the  right,  and  both  side  and  front  views  of  the 
unguent  saucer  are  given. 


378 


POMPEII 


Small  articles  of  toilet  are  discovered  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation.  The  forms  in  most  cases  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  those  to  which  we  are  accustomed. 

The  fine  comb  seen  in  Fig.  210  <:?  is  of  bone;  the  two  coarse 
combs  (Fig.  210/^  and  Fig.  214  c/)  are  of  bronze. 


Fig  211.  —  Hdirpins.     Underneath,  two 
small  ivory  toilet  boxes. 


Fig.  212.  —  Glass  box 
for  cosmetics. 


Fig.  213.  —  Hand 
mirrors. 


214.  —  Group  of  toilet 
articles. 


a.    Standing  mirror. 
h.    Ear  cleaner. 


c.  Ivory  box  for  cosmetics. 

d.  Bronze  comb. 


The  ends  of  the  hairpins  were  often  ornamented  with  figures. 
The  specimens  shown  in  Fig.  211  are  of  ivory.  The  designs  in 
which  female  figures  appear  are  in  keeping  with  the  use,  but 
the  ornamentation  for  the  most  part  seems  excessive. 

The  toilet  boxes,  of  glass  or  ivory,  were  used  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  Of  those  presented  in  our  illustrations,  one  (Fig.  211, 
at   the   right)  probably   contained    perfumed    oil.      The  round 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE 


379 


Gold  arm  band. 


glass  box  (Fig.  212)  was  used  for  cosmetics,  as  was  also  the  ivory 

box  seen  in  Fig.  214,  the  outside  of  which  is  carved  in  low  relief. 
The  mirrors  were  of  metal,  highly  poHshed.     The  one  seen  in 

Fig.  214  was  designed  to  stand 

upon  a  dressing  case ;  the  other 

three  (Fig.  213)  are  hand  mir- 
rors. The  frame  of  the  rectan- 
gular mirror  is  modern ;  whether 

or  not  this  had  a  handle  is  not 

clear. 

Jewellery  of  gold  and  silver 

and  other  small  objects  wrought 

in   the    precious    metals    have 

now  and  then  been  found.     A 

characteristic  example  of   the 

jewellery  is  the  large  gold  arm 

band  in  the  form  of  a  serpent, 

with  eyes  of  rubies,  found  in 

the    house    of    the    Faun   (Fig.    215).      It   weighs    twenty-two 

ounces;  to  judge  from  the  size,  it  must  have  been  intended  for 

the  upper  arm. 

Much  more  important,  from  the  aesthetic  point  of  view,  are 

the  cups  and  other 
articles  of  silver  de- 
signed for  table  use. 
As  these  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  ob- 
jects of  the  same  class 
found  elsewhere,  we 
should  not  be  war- 
ranted in  entering 
upon  an  extended  dis- 
cussion of  them  here ; 
a  few  examples  must 
suffice. 

Of  the  three  cups 

with    repousse    reliefs 

Fig.  2i6.-siiver  cups.  shown  in  Fig.  216,  one 


38o 


POMPEII 


(a)  has  a  simple  but  effective  decoration  of  leaves.  Another 
(<r)  presents  the  apotheosis  of  Homer;  the  bard  is  being  carried 
to.  heaven  by  an  eagle,  while  on  either  side  (detail  in  d)  sits  an 
allegorical  figure  —  the  Iliad  with  helmet,  shield,  and  spear,  and 

the    Odyssey  with    a 


Fig.  216  t'.  —  Detail  of  cup  with  Centaurs. 


sailor's  cap  and  a  steer- 
ing paddle.  On  the 
third  {d,  detail  in  Fig. 
216  £")  we  see  a  male 
and  a  female  Centaur, 
withBacchicemblems, 
conversing  with  Cu- 
pids posed  gracefully 
on  their  backs.     This  last  is  one  of  a  pair  found  in  1835. 

The  Boscoreale  treasure  contained  a  hundred  and  three  speci- 
mens of  silver  ware,  undoubtedly  the  collection  of  an  amateur. 

Of  the  purely  decorative  pieces  the  finest  is  the  shallow  bowl 
{p/iiala,  patera)  8^  inches  in  diameter,  with  an  allegorical  repre- 
sentation of  the  city  of  Alexandria,  in  high  relief  (Fig.  187). 
The  city  is  personified  as  a  female  divinity  —  alert,  powerful, 
majestic.  Upon  her  head  are  the  spoils  of  an  elephant;  the 
trunk  and  tusks  project  above,  while  the  huge  ears,  hanging 
down  behind,  are  skilfully  adjusted  to  the  outline  of  the  god- 
dess's neck. 

In  the  fold  of  her  chiton,  held  by  the  right  hand,  and  in  the 
cornucopia  resting  on  the  left  arm,  are  fruits  of  Egypt,  among 
which  grapes  and  pomegranates  are  easily  distinguished.  A 
representation  of  Helios  appears  in  low  relief  upon  the  upper 
part  "of  the  cornucopia ;  below  is  the  eagle,  emblem  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. A  lion  is  mounted  on  the  right  shoulder  of  the  goddess ; 
in  her  right  hand  she  holds  an  asp,  sacred  to  Isis,  with  head 
uplifted  as  in  the  representation  described  by  Apuleius  (Met. 
XI.  4);  facing  the  asp  is  a  female  panther. 

Around  the  group  in  low  relief  are  the  attributes  (not  all  dis- 
tinguishable in  our  illustration)  of  various  divinities  —  the  bow 
and  quiver  of  Artemis,  the  club  of  Hercules,  the  sistrum  of  Isis, 
the  forceps  of  Vulcan,  the  serpent  of  Aesculapius  entwined 
around  a  staff,  the  sword  of  Mars  in  a  scabbard,  and  the  lyre  of 


HOUSEHOLD    FURNITURE  381 

Apollo.     A  dolphin  in  the  midst  of  waves  (under  the  right  hand) 
symbolizes  the  maritime  relations  of  the  city. 

The  central  medallion  {cmblcvia)  was  made  separately  and 
attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  patera.  Between  it  and  the  outer 
edge  of  the  bowl  is  a  band  of  pleasing  ornament,  composed  of 
sprays  of  myrtle  and  laurel.  The  surface  of  the  medallion  was 
all  gilded  except  the  undraped  portions  of  the  goddess.  The 
ears  of  the  goddess  were  pierced  for  ear-rings,  which  were  not 
found.  The  date  of  the  patera  can  not  be  determined ;  it  is 
perhaps  as  old  as  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

Among  the  cups,  sixteen  in  number,  two  are  especially  note- 
worthy. They  are  four  inches  high,  and  form  a  pair ;  they  are 
ornamented  with  skeletons  in  high  relief,  so  grouped  that  each 
cup  presents  four  scenes  satirizing  human  life  and  its  interpre- 
tation in  poetry  and  philosophy. 

Two  scenes  from  one  of  the  cups  are  shown  in  Fig.  217.  At 
the  left  the  Stoic  Zeno  appears,  standing  stiffly  with  his  phi- 
losopher's staff  in  his  left  hand,  his  wallet  hanging  from  his  neck  ; 
with  right  hand  extended  he  points  the  index  finger  in  indigna- 
tion and  scorn  at  Epicurus,  who,  paying  no  heed  to  him,  is  taking 
a  piece  of  a  huge  cake  lying  on  the  top  of  a  small  round  table. 
Beside  Epicurus  an  eager  pig  with  snout  and  left  foreleg  up- 
lifted is  demanding  a  share.  Over  the  cake  is  the  inscription  : 
TO  reXo'i  rjSovi],  '  the  end  of  life  is  pleasure.'  The  letters  of  the  /^i^^>>-**<^ 
inscription,  as  of  the  names  of  the  philosophers,  are  too  small  to 
be  shown  distinctly  in  our  illustration. 

No  names  are  given  with  the  figures  in  the  other  scene ;  a 
kind  of  genre  picture  is  presented.  The  skeleton  in  the  middle 
is  placing  a  wreath  of  flowers  upon  his  head.  The  one  at  the 
right  holds  in  one  hand  a  skull  which  he  examines  contempla- 
tively—  we  are  reminded  of  Hamlet  in  the  scene  with  the  grave- 
digger  ;  in  the  other  hand  (not  seen  in  the  illustration)  is  a 
wreath  of  flowers.  The  third  of  the  principal  figures  holds  in 
his  right  hand  a  bag  exceedingly  heavy,  as  indicated  by  the 
adjustment  of  the  bones  of  the  right  arm  and  leg;  over  the  bag 
is  the  word  (f)66vot,  'envyings.'  The  object  in  the  left  hand  is 
so  Hght  that  its  weight  is  not  felt ;  it  is  a  butterfly,  held  by  the 
wings,  and  above  it  is  inscribed  yjrvx^ov,  a  diminutive  -"f  "^^XVi 


382 


POMPKll 


'  soul '  ;  we  shall  later  find  another  instance  of  the  representa- 
tion of  a  disembodied  soul  as  a  butterfly  (p.  398).  It  was  perhaps 
the  design  of  the  artist  to  represent  the  figure  as  holding  the 
bag  behind  him  while  presenting  the  butterfly  to  the  one  who  is 
putting  on  the  wreath. 

On  either  side  of  the  middle  figure  are  two  others  less  than 
half  as  large.  One,  under  the  butterfly,  is  playing  the  lyre ; 
over  his  head  is  the  word  rep-v/ri?,   'pleasure.'     The  second  is 


Fig.  217.  —  Silver  cup  with  skeleton  groups.     From  the  Boscoreale  treasure. 

clapping  his  hands,  and  above  him  is  a  Greek  inscription  which 
gives  the  thought  of  the  whole  design  :  '  So  long  as  you  live 
take  your  full  share  '  of  life,  '  for  the  morrow  is  uncertain.' 

Both  cups  had  evidently  long  been  in  use  ;  there  are  still  some 
traces  of  gilding,  which,  however,  seems  not  to  have  been  applied 
to  the  skeletons.  While  the  explanatory  inscriptions  are  in 
Greek,  a  Latin  name,  Gavia,  is  inscribed  on  the  under  side  of 
the  second  cup,  in  the  same  kind  of  letters  as  the  record  of 
weight  (p.  508).  The  Gavii  were  a  family  of  some  prominence 
at  Pompeii ;  we  are  perhaps  warranted  in  concluding  that  the 
cups  were  made  by  a  Greek  for  this  Fompeian  lady,  and  that 
afterward  thev  came  into  the  [)ossession  of  another  lady, 
Maxima,  who  formed  the  collection. 


PART    III 

TRADES   AND    OCCUPATIONS 
CHAPTER    XLVII 

THE   TRADES  AT  POMPEII.— THE  BAKERS 

In  antiquity  there  was  no  such  distinction  between  trades  and 
professions  as  exists  to-day.  In  the  Early  Empire  all  activity 
outside  the  field  of  public  service,  civil  and  military,  or  the 
management  of  estates,  was  considered  beneath  the  dignity  of 
a  Roman  ;  the  practice  of  law,  which  had  received  its  impulse 
largely  from  the  obligation  of  patrons  to  protect  their  clients, 
was  included  among  public  duties.  The  ordinary  work  of  life 
was  left  mainly  to  slaves  and  freedmen.  Not  only  the  trades, 
as  we  understand  the  term,  but  architecture  and  engineering,  — 
in  antiquity  two  branches  of  one  occupation,  —  the  practice  of 
medicine,  and  teaching,  were  looked  upon  as  menial.  A  Roman 
of  literary  or  practical  bent  might  manifest  an  interest  in  such 
vocations,  but  it  was  considered  hardly  respectable  actively  to 
engage  in  them. 

This  attitude  of  mind,  especially  toward  the  higher  occupations, 
is  only  explicable  in  the  light  of  the  social  conditions  then  exist- 
ing. Men  who  kept  slaves  of  every  degree  of  intelligence  and 
training,  and  were  at  all  times  accustomed  to  command,  were 
not  disposed  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to  do  another's 
bidding,  excepting  in  the  service  of  the  State  alone  ;  and  work 
committed  to  slaves  and  freedmen  naturally  came  to  be  consid- 
ered unworthy  the  employment  of  a  gentleman.  The  freemen 
of  the  same  craft  were  often  united  in  guilds  or  corporations, 
for  the  administration  of  certain  matters  of  mutual  interest ;  but 
nothing  is  known  in  regard  to  the  activities  of  such  organizations 
at  Pompeii. 


384  POMPEII 

In  a  city  as  large  as  Pompeii,  all  the  occupations  corresponding 
to  the  needs  of  daily  life  must  have  been  represented.  The  re- 
mains of  the  appliances  and  products  of  labor  are  of  the  most 
varied  character,  sometimes  far  from  satisfactory,  raising  more 
difficulties  than  they  solve  ;  yet  often  revealing  at  a  glance  the 
ancient  methods  of  work,  and  casting  light  upon  the  economic 
background  of  Greek  and  Roman  culture.  The  excavations 
have  brought  before  us  three  sources  of  information,  inscrip- 
tions, paintings,  and  the  remains  of  buildings  or  rooms  used  as 
workshops. 

The  inscriptions  refer  to  more  than  a  score  of  occupations ; 
from  farming  to  innkeeping,  and  from  hairdressing  to  gold- 
working.  Most  of  them  are  election  notices,  in  which  the 
members  of  a  craft  unite,  or  are  exhorted  to  unite,  in  recom- 
mending a  certain  candidate  for  a  municipal  office.  These  are 
painted  in  red  letters  on  the  walls  along  the  streets,  and  are  much 
alike,  though  some  are  fuller  than  others.  The  simplest  form 
contains  only  three  words,  as  Trebiuni  acd.  tonsorcs,  — '  The 
barbers  recommend  Trebius  for  the  office  of  aedile.'  The  more 
elaborate  recommendations  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  : 
Vcruin  aed.  o.  v.  f.  (for  aedilem,  oro  vos,  facite),  nnguentari, 
facite,  rog\o\  — '  Do  make  Verus  aedile,  perfumers,  elect  him,  I 
beg  of  you.'  The  whole  craft  of  goldsmiths  favored  the  election 
of  Pansa  :  C  Cnspiuni  Pansani  aed.  anrifices  univcrsi  rog[auf\ 
— '  All  the  goldsmiths  recommend  Gains  Cuspius  Pansa  for  the 
aedileship.' 

The  recommendations  of  the  fruit  sellers  are  particularly 
conspicuous.  On  one  occasion  they  joined  with  a  prominent 
individual  in  the  support  of  a  ticket :  M.  Holconiuvi  Priscnni  II 
vir.  i.  d.pomari  niiiversi  cinn  Hclvio  Vc stale  rog.,  —  '  All  the  fruit 
sellers,  together  with  Helvius  Vestalis,  urge  the  election  of  M. 
Holconius  Prisons  as  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority.'  There 
may  have  been  some  special  reason  why  the  fruiterers  wished 
to  keep  in  favor  with  the  city  authorities,  and  so  took  an  active 
part  in  the  elections ;  the  dealers  in  garlic  {aliari)  also  had  a 
candidate. 

Among  the  representatives  of  other  employments  that  joined 
in  the  support  of  candidates  were  the  dyers  {offectores),  cloak- 


THE    BAKERS  385 

cutters  {sagarii),  pack-carriers  {saccarii),  mule-drivers  {muliones), 
and  fishermen  {piscicapi).  The  inscription  in  which  reference 
is  made  to  the  gig-drivers  is  mentioned  elsewhere  (p.  243). 

The  paintings  in  which  we  see  work  going  on  are  numerous. 
By  far  the  most  pleasing  are  those  in  which  the  workmen  are 
Cupids,  busying  themselves  with  the  affairs  of  men.  Several 
pictures  of  this  kind  have  already  been  described  (pp.  97,  332- 
337) ;  but  we  ought  to  add  to  those  mentioned  two  scenes  from 
Herculaneum,  often  reproduced,  in  which  Cupids  are  repre- 
sented as  carpenters  and  as  shoemakers. 

Among  the  more  important  paintings  in  which  the  figures  of 
men  appear  are  those  which  picture  the  life  of  an  inn  and  those 
that  present  the  processes  of  cleaning  cloth  ;  both  groups  are 
reserved  for  later  discussion.  In  a  house  in  the  ninth  Region 
(IX.  V.  9)  a  stuccoer  is  pictured  at  work  putting  the  finishing- 
touches  on  a  wall  with  a  smoothing  tool,  and  in  the  house  of 
the  Surgeon  an  artist  is  seen  painting  a  herm  (Fig.  133). 

In  only  a  few  instances  are  the  remains  of  workshops  suffi- 
ciently characteristic  to  indicate  their  purpose.  Among  the 
most  impressive,  to  the  visitor  at  Pompeii,  are  the  ruins  of  the 
bakeries,  with  their  large  millstones  (Fig.  218).  Equally  im- 
portant, also,  are  the  remains  of  the  fulleries,  and  of  a  large 
tannery,  which,  as  well  as  those  of  the  inns  and  winerooms, 
will  be  discussed  in  separate  chapters. 

A  few  out  of  the  hundreds  of  shops  opening  on  the  streets 
contain  remains  of  the  articles  exposed  for  sale.  The  discovery 
of  charred  nuts,  fruits,  and  loaves  of  bread  in  the  market  stalls 
north  of  the  Macellum  has  already  been  noted  (p.  96).  We 
know  the  use  of  other  shop.s  from  the  remains  of  paints  found 
in  them.  The  arrangements  of  such  places  of  business  were 
discussed  in  connection  with  those  of  the  Pompeian  house. 

Several  establishments  which  contain  large  lead  kettles  set  in 
masonry,  with  a  place  for  a  fire  underneath,  have  been  identi- 
fied as  dyehouses.  In  the  case  of  one  on  Stabian  Street  (VII. 
ii.  11),  the  identification  seems  complete.  Nine  such  kettles 
stood  in  the  peristyle,  which  has  a  direct  connection  with  the 
street;  in  a  closet  were  numerous  bottles,  part  of  which  con- 
tained coloring  materials.     There  was  formerly  a  painting  on  the 


386 


POMPEII 


wall  of  the  entrance,  representing  a  man  carrying  on  a  pole 
an  object  which  had  the  appearance  of  a  garment  fresh  from 
the  dye. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  street  is  the  election  notice : 
Postmniitm  Proaibini  aed.  ojfcctorcs  rog'[_ant\,  —  'The  dyers 
request  the  election  of  Postumius  Proculus  as  aedile.''  The 
house  on  which  this  inscription  is  painted  (IX.  iii.  2)  contained 
three  kettles  similar  to  those  already  mentioned  ;  the  dyers  of 


Fig.  218.  —  Ruins  of  a  bakery,  wiiii   iiiillbtun 


both  establishments  may  have  united  in  supporting  the  candi- 
dacy of  Proculus. 

A  potter's  workshop,  with  two  ovens,  is  located  outside  the 
Herculaneum  Gate,  where  the  streets  divide  opposite  the  villa 
of  Diomedes  (Plan  V,  29-30).  The  ovens,  which  are  not  large, 
have  an  upper  division,  in  which  were  placed  the  vessels  to  be 
baked,  and  a  firebox  underneath,  the  floor  above  being  pierced 
with  holes  to  let  the  heat  through.  The  vault  of  one  of  the  ovens 
was  constructed  of  parallel  rows  of  jars  fitted  into  one  another. 

There  was  a  shoemaker's  shop  on  the  northwest  corner  of 


v^>  THE    BAKERS  387 

Insula  VII.  i  opening  upon  two  streets.  It  is  connected  with 
the  entrance  hall  of  the  adjoining  house  (No.  40),  and  near  the 
middle  is  a  small  stone  table.  The  identification  rests  upon  the 
discovery  here  of  certain  tools,  particularly  leather-cutters'  knives 
with  a  crescent-shaped  blade  ;  there  was  also  an  inscription  on 
the  wall,  making  record  of  some  repairing  done  'July  14,  with  a 
sharp-cornered  knife  (sea/pro  ajigulato)  and  an  awl.'  Apparently 
the  porter  of  the  house  {ostiariiis)  was  at  the  same  time  a  cob- 
bler, as  frequently  in  Italy  to-day. 

On  the  same  wall  is  another  scribbling :  M.  Nonius  Canipa- 
mis  mil.  coJi.  ]^IIII pr.  >  Cacsi,  —  '  Marcus  Nonius  Campanus,  a 
soldier  of  the  ninth  praetorian  cohort,  of  the  century  led  by 
Caesius.'  The  name  of  the  centurion,  M.  Caesius  Blandus,  is 
scratched  twice  on  the  columns  of  the  peristyle  in  the  same 
house.  Captain  and  private  may  have  come  from  Rome  in  the 
escort  of  an  emperor.  Perhaps  the  centurion  was  quartered  in 
this  house ;  the  soldier,  waiting  to  have  his  shoes  mended, 
scratched  his  name  upon  the  wall. 

The  better  houses  were  so  freely  adorned  with  statuettes  and 
other  ornaments  of  marble  that  there  must  have  been  marble- liiii  '■  '■ 
workers  in  the  city.  The  workshop  of  one  was  found,  in  1798, 
on  Stabian  Street,  near  the  Large  Theatre.  It  contained  various 
pieces  of  carving,  as  herms,  table  feet,  and  table  tops  ;  there  was 
also  an  unfinished  mortar,  together  with  a  slab  of  marble  partly 
sawed,  the  saw^  being  left  in  the  cut. 

Signs  of  shops  are  not  often  seen  in  Pompeii,  but  two  or  three 
may  be  mentioned.  In  the  wall  of  a  shop-front  in  the  block 
containing  the  Baths  north  of  the  Forum,  there  is  a  terra  cotta 
plaque  with  a  goat  in  relief,  to  indicate  the  place  of  a  milk  vi'  v  iL| 
dealer ;  and  not  far  away  we  find  a  sign  of  a  wineshop,  a  tufa 
rehef  of  two  men  carrying  between  them*  an  amphora  hungiii-,^^' ,'^'"^ 
from  a  pole  supported  on  their  shoulders. 

Not  all  such  reliefs,  however,  are  signs  of  shops.  Near 
the  Porta  Marina  (at  the  northwest  corner  of  Insula  VII.  xv),  a 
tufa  block  may  be  seen  near  the  top  of  the  wall,  showing  a 
mason's  tools  in  relief ;  above  it  is  the  inscription,  Diogenes 
structor,  'Diogenes  the  mason.'  This  is  not  a  sign  —  the 
inscription  can  hardly  be  read  from  below  ;  it  is,  moreover,  on  the 


388 


POMPEII 


outside  of  a  garden  wall,  with  no  house  or  shop  entrance  near 
it.  It  is  rather  a  workman's  signature  ;  Diogenes  had  built  the 
wall,  and  wished  to  leave  a  record  of  his  skill. 


In  antiquity  the  miller  and  the  baker  were  one  person.  We 
rarely  find  in  Pompeii  —  and  then  only  in  private  houses  —  an 
oven  without  mills  under  the  same  roof.  There  were  many 
bakeries  in  the  city.  The  portion  already  excavated  contains 
more  than  twenty,  each  of  them  with  three  or  four  mills ;  bread 
was  furnished,  therefore,  by  a  number  of  small  bakeries  rather 
than  by  a  few  large  establishments. 

The  appearance  of  a  bakery  to-day,  with  its  mills  and  its  large 
oven,  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  218.     The  arrangements  can  more 

easily  be  explained,  however,  from 
the  plan  of  another  establishment, 
one  of  the  largest,  in  the  third  In- 
sula of  Region  VI.  (Fig.  219).  Enter- 
ing from  the  street  through  the 
fauces,  we  find  ourselves  in  an  atrium 
of  simple  form  (8)  with  rooms  on 
either  side;  the  tablinum  (14)  is  here 
merely  an  entrance  to  the  mill  room 
(15).  In  the  corner  of  the  atrium 
is  a  stairway  leading  to  a  second 
story,  which  was  particularly  needed 
here,  because  the  living  rooms  at  the 
rear  were  required  for  the  bakery ; 
the  floor  of  the  second  story  was 
supported  by  brick  pillars  at  the 
corners  of  the  impluvium,  joined  by 
flat  arches. 

The  four  mills  (b),  were  turned 
by  animals ;  the  floor  around  them 
is  paved  with  basalt  flags  like  those 
used  for  the  streets.  In  the  same  room,  at  d,  were  the  remains 
of  a  low  table ;  at  c  there  is  a  cistern  curb,  with  a  large  earthen 
vessel  for  holding  water  on  either  side,  while  the  wall  above  was 
ornamented  with  a  painting  representing  Vesta,  the  patron  god- 


Fig.  219. — 

8.    Atrium. 

15.  Mill  room 

16.  Stable. 


Plan  of  a  bakery. 

17.  Oven. 

18.  Kneading  room. 

19.  Storeroom. 


THE    BAKERS 


389 


Fig.  220.- 


-  A  Pompeian  mill,  without  its 
framework. 


dess  of  bakers,  between  the  two  Lares.     On  one  side  of  the  oven 

(17)  is  the  kneading  room  (18),  on  the  other  the  storeroom  ( 19), 

The  room  at  the  left  (16)  is 

the  stall  for  the  donkeys  that 

turned  the  mills. 

The  mills  of  Pompeii,  with 

slight    variations,    are    all    of 

one  type  ;  if  there  were  water- 
mills  on  the  Sarno,  no  trace 

of  them  has  been  found.    The 

millstones  are  of  lava  (p.  15). 

The    lower  stone,   meta,   has 

the  shape  of  a  cone  resting 

on  the  end  of  a  cylinder,  but 

the  cylindrical  part  is  in  most 

cases  partially  concealed  by  a 

thick   hoop  of  masonry,  the 

top  of  which  was  formed  into  a  trough  to  receive  the  flour,  and 

was  covered  with  sheet  lead  (Fig.  220).     A  square  hole,  five  or 

six  inches  across,  was  cut  in  the  top  of  the  cone,  in  which  was 

inserted  a  wooden  standard ; 
this  supported  a  vertical  iron 
pivot  on  which  the  frame  of 
the  upper  millstone  turned. 

The  shape  of  the  upper 
millstone,  catillns,  may  best 
be  seen  in  Fig.  221.  It  was 
like  a  double  funnel,  the  lower 
cavity  being  fitted  to  the  cone 
of  the  lower  millstone,  while 
that  in  the  upper  part  an- 
swered the  purpose  of  a  hop- 
per. The  two  cavities  were 
connected  at  the  centre  by  an 
opening  similar  to  that  of  an 

hourglass,  which  left  room  for  the  standard  and  allowed  the  grain 

to  run  down  slowly,  when  the  catillns  was  turned,  to  be  ground 

between  the  two  stones.     The  flour  ran  out  at  the  base  of  the 


221. —  Section  of  a  mill,  restored. 


390 


POMPEII 


cone  and  fell  into  the  trough,  ready  to  be  sifted  and  made  into 
bread. 

The  upper  millstone  was  nicely  balanced  over  the  lower,  the 
surface  of  which  it  touched  but  lightly ;  it  could  not  have  rested 
on  the  under  stone  with  full  weight,  for  in  that  case  the  strength 
of  a  draft  animal  would  not  have  sufficed  to  move  it.  The 
stones  could  be  set  for  finer  or  coarser  grinding  by  changing 
the  length  of  the  standard. 

The  arrangement  for  turning  the  mill  was  simple.  In  shap- 
ing the  upper  millstone,  strong  shoulders  were  left  in  the  nar- 
rowest part  (Fig.    220),   on  opposite  sides.      In  these   square 

sockets  were  cut,  in  which  the  ends 
of  shafts  were  inserted  and  firmly 
fastened  by  round  bolts  passing 
through  the  shoulders  (Fig.  221). 
The  shafts  were  tied  to  the  ends  of 
the  crossbeam  above  by  curved  verti- 
cal pieces  of  wood,  or  by  straps  of 
iron,  which  were  let  into  grooves  in 
the  stone  and  so  made  firm.  The 
crosspiece  above,  which  turned  on  the 
pivot  in  the  end  of  the  standard,  was 
sometimes  of  iron,  sometimes  of  wood 
with  an  iron  socket  fitting  the  pivot. 
The  framework  must  necessarily  have 
been  exceedingly  strong.  One  of  the  mills  at  Pompeii  (IX.  iii.  10) 
has  lately  been  set  up  with  new  woodwork,  and  grinds  very  well. 
The  smaller  mills  were  turned  by  slaves,  the  larger  by  draft 
animals.  Men  pushed  on  the  projecting  shafts,  but  animals 
wore  a  collar  which  was  attached  by  a  chain  or  rope  to  the  end 
of  the  crosspiece  at  the  top.  The  links  of  the  chain  running  to 
the  crossbeam  are  distinctly  shown  in  a  relief  in  the  Vatican 
Museum  (Fig.  222),  in  which  a  horse  is  represented  turning  a 
mill.  Blinders  are  over  the  eyes  of  the  horse,  which  seems  also 
to  be  checked  up  in  order  to  prevent  eating.  A  square  hopper 
rests  on  the  crossbeam,  and  the  miller  is  bringing  a  measure  of 
wheat  to  pour  into  it.  On  a  shelf  in  the  corner  of  the  room  is  a 
lamp. 


Fig.  222.  —  A  mill  in  operation. 
Relief  in  the  Vatican  Museum. 


THE   BAKERS  391 

The  ovens  were  not  unlike  those  still  in  use  in  many  parts  of 
Europe.  They  were  shaped  like  a  low  beehive,  generally  with 
some  kind  of  a  flue  in  front  to  make  the  fire  burn  inside  while 
they  were  being  heated.     The  oven  in  the         ^^  f5^ 

bakery  described  above,  however,  has  a 

special  device  for  saving  as  much  heat  as         ^^^^^H^^^HrV3 
possible  (Fig.  223  ) ;  it  is  entirely  enclosed 
in  a  smoke  chamber  {b),  with  two  open- 
ings above  {d)  for  the  draft.     Fires  were    y 

kindled  in  such  ovens  with  wood  or  char-      

coal ;  the  latter  was  probably  used  here.  Fig.  223.— Section  of  bake 
When  the  proper  temperature  for  baking  °^^"* 

had  been  reached,  the  ashes  were  raked  out  (in  Fig.  223,  c  is  an 
ashpit),  the  loaves  of  bread  shoved  in,  and  the  mouth  closed  to 
retain  the  heat.  A  receptacle  for  water  stands  in  front  of  our 
oven  (/),  a  convenience  for  moistening  the  surface  of  the  loaves 
while  baking.     The  front  of  the  oven  (at  c)  was  connected  with 


224. —  Kneading  machine,  plan  and  section. 


the  rooms  on  either  side,  as  may  be  more  clearly  seen  by  refer- 
ring to  Fig.  219.  In  the  kneading  room  (18),  where  were  found 
remains  of  a  large  table  and  shelves,  the  loaves  were  made  ready, 
and  could  be  passed  through  one  opening  to  the  front  of  the 
oven ;  the  hot  loaves  could  be  conveniently  passed  through  the 
other  opening  into  the  storeroom  (19). 


392  POMPEII 

_  In  many  establishments  a  machine  was  used  for  kneading; 

i-'i'"'''  the  best  example  is  in  a  bakery  on  the  north  side  of  Insula  xiv 

la^^.-Xr,  -^  Region  VI.     Such  kneading  machines  are  seen  also  in  an- 

'^^"^'"/  (  '  "^  cient  representations  of  the  baker's  trade,  as  in  the  reliefs  of 
^(^*  t*^  the  tomb  of  Eurysaces,  near  the  Porta  Maggiore  at  Rome. 
f  r,  '  *  J^v  The  dough  was  placed  in  a  round  pan  of  lava  a  foot  and  a 
I  .  .^^^  xaAjux.  -half  or  two  feet  in  diameter.  In  this  a  vertical  shaft  revolved, 
T«  Hk^  -jX^-e  to  the  lower  part  of  which  two  or  three  wooden  arms  were  at- 
'*^^-'V'  tached  (three  in  Fig.  224);  the  one  at  the  bottom  was  strength- 

ened by  an  iron  crosspiece  on  the  under  side,  the  projecting 
centre  of  which  turned  in  a  socket  below.  The  side  of  the  pan 
was  pierced  in  two  or  three  places  for  the  insertion  of  wooden 
teeth,  so  placed  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  revolution  of  the 
arms.  As  the  shaft  was  turned,  the  dough  was  pushed  forward 
by  the  arms  and  held  back  by  the  teeth,  being  thus  thoroughly 
kneaded.  Modern  kneading  machines  are  constructed  on  the 
same  principle,  but  have  two  sets  of  teeth  on  horizontal  cylin- 
ders revolving  toward  each  other. 


CHAPTER    XLVIII 

THE  FULLERS  AND    THE   TANNERS 

The  work  of  the  ancient  fuller  was  twofold,  to  make  ready 
for  use  the  cloth  fresh  from  the  loom,  and  to  cleanse  garments 
that  had  been  worn.  As  the  garments  used  by  the  Romans 
were  mainly  of  wool,  and  needed  skilful  manipulation  to  retain 
their  size  and  shape,  they  were  ordinarily  sent  out  of  the  house 
to  be  cleansed ;  in  consequence  the  trade  of  the  fuller  was  rela- 
tively important.  In  the  part  of  Pompeii  thus  far  excavated  we 
find  two  large  fulleries  and  one  smaller  establishment  that  can 
be  identified  with  certainty ;  and  there  were  doubtless  many 
laundries,  with  less  ample  facilities,  the  purpose  of  which  is  not 
clearly  indicated  by  the  remains.  The  following  account  of  the 
processes  employed  relates  exclusively  to  woollen  fabrics. 

At  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Pompeii,  soap,  a  Gallic 
invention,  was  only  beginning  to  come  into  use ;  the  commonest 
substitute  was  fuller's  earth,  creta  fiillonia,  a  kind  of  alkaline 
marl.  For  raising  the  nap,  teasel  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
used,  as  with  us,  but  a  species  of  thorn  {spina  fit l/onia)  the  spines 
of  which  were  mounted  in  a  carding  tool  resembling  a  brush 
{acua)\  the  skin  of  a  hedgehog  also  was  sometimes  utilized  for 
this  purpose. 

The  fulling  of  new  cloth  involved  seven  or  eight  distinct  pro- 
cesses, —  washing  with  fuller's  earth,  or  other  cleansing  agents, 
to  remove  the  oily  matter ;  beating  and  stretching,  to  make  the 
surface  even  ;  washing  and  drying  a  second  time,  for  cleaning 
and  shrinking-  combing  with  a  carding  tool  to  raise  the  nap, 
brushing  in  order  to  make  it  ready  for  clipping,  and  shearing 
to  reduce  the  nap  to  proper  length  ;  then,  particularly  in  the 
case  of  the  white  woollens  so  commonly  used,  bleaching  with 
sulphur  fumes ;  and  finally,  smoothing  in  a  large  press.  The 
process  of  cleaning  soiled  garments  was  more  simple. 

393 


394 


POMPKII 


^. 


Viii 


'■Jl 


^^Vv\A-djdjUL  T^'-  (> 


n,i, 


"^^ 


Fig.  225.  —  Scene  in  a  fullery :  treading  vats. 


A  series  of  paintings  in  the  largest  of  the  fulleries,  on  the 
west  side  of  Mercury  Street,  picture  several  of  these  processes 
with  great  clearness.  They  were  on  a  large  pillar  at  the  front 
end  of  the  peristyle,  from  which  they  were  removed  to  the 
Museum  at  Naples ;  they  supplement  admirably  the  scenes  of 

the  Cupids'  fullery 
in  the  house  of  the 
Vettii,  mentioned 
in  a  previous  chap- 
ter (p.  335). 

In  the  first  pic- 
ture (Fig.  225),  the 
clothes  are  being 
washed.  They  are 
in  four  round  tread- 
ing vats,  which 
stand  in  niches 
formed  by  a  low  wall.  One  of  the  workmen  is  still  treading  his 
allotment,  steadying  himself  by  resting  his  arms  on  the  walls  of 
the  niche  at  both 
sides ;  the  other 
three  have  finished 
treading  and  are 
standing  on  the 
bottom  of  their 
tubs,  rinsing  the 
garments  before 
wringing  them  out. 
The  next  scene 
(Fig.  226)  is  three- 
fold. In  the  fore- 
ground at  the  left 
sits  a  richly 
dressed  lady,  to 
whom  a  girl  brings 
a  garment  that  has 
been  cleaned ;  that 
the  woman  is  not  one  of  those  employed  in  the  fullery  is  evident 


Fit;.  226.  - 


-Scene  in  a  fullery  :  inspection  of  cloth  ;  cardina 
bleaching  frame. 


THE    FULLERS   AND   THE   TANNERS 


395 


from  her  elaborate  headdress,  necklace,  and  bracelets.  In  the. 
background  a  workman  dressed  in  a  tunic  is  carding  a  large 
piece  of  cloth.  Near  by  another  workman  carries  on  his  shoul- 
ders a  bleaching  frame,  over  which  garments  were  spread  to  re- 
ceive the  fumes  of  the  sulphur;  he  holds  in  his  left  hand  the 
pot  in  which  the  brimstone  was  burned.  An  owl,  symbol  of 
Minerva,  who  was  worshipped  by  fullers  as  their  patron  divinity, 
sits  upon  the  frame  ;  and  the  man  underneath  has  on  his  head 
a  wreath  of  leaves  from  the  olive  tree,  which  was  sacred  to  the 
same  goddess. 

In  the  third  picture  a  young  man  hands  a  garment  to  a  girl;  ztz/i 
at  the  right  a  woman  is 
cleaning  a  carding  tool. 
The  fourth  (Fig.  227)  gives 
an  excellent  representation 
of  a  fuller's  press,  worked 
by  two  upright  screws ;  it 
is  so  much  like  our  modern 
presses  as  to  need  no  ex- 
planation. The  festoons 
with  which  it  is  adorned 
are  of  olive  leaves. 

With  these  pictures  be- 
fore us,  it  will  be  easy  to 
understand  the  plan  of  the 
fullery  on  the  west  side  of 
Stabian  Street,  opposite 
the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  (Fig.  228).  It  was  exca- 
vated in  1875.  The  building  was  not  originally  designed  for  a  V:  x\/  ^'-^^ 
fuller's  establishment,  but  for  a  private  house,  and  part  of  the 
rooms  were  retained  for  domestic  use,  as  the  well  preserved 
kitchen  (d),  and  some  of  the  other  rooms  opening  off  from  the 
atrium  ((^).  The  furniture  of  the  atrium  —  a  table  in  front  of 
the  impluvium,  with  a  pedestal  for  a  fountain  figure,  and  a 
marble  basin  to  receive  the  jet  —  is  like  that  of  the  house  the 
interior  of  which  is  shown  in  Plate  VII. 

The  fuller's  appliances  are  found  in  the  shop  next  to  the 
entrance  (21),  and  in  the  peristyle  (^7).     In  the  former  are  the 


Fig.  227.  —  A  fuller's  press. 


396 


POMPEII 


V>     X  W  ■ 


foundations  of  three  treading  vats,  and  on  the  opposite  side  an 
oblong  depression  in  which  the  press  was  placed.  The  peristyle 
contains  three  large  basins  of  masonry  for  soaking  and  rinsing 
the  clothes.  A  jet  of  water  fell  into  the  one  next  the  rear  wall 
(3),  from  which  it  ran  into  the  other  two  through  holes  in  the 
sides.  Along  the  wall  is  a  raised  walk  (4)  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  the  basins,  into  which  the  workmen  descended  by  means 
of  steps.  At  the  ends  of  this  walk  are  places  for  seven  tread- 
ing vats,  five  in  one  group,  two  in  the  other.     The  wall  above  is 

decorated  with  a  long 
sketchy  painting,  in 
which  the  fullers  are 
seen  engaged  in  the 
celebration  of  a  festi- 
val, —  doubtless  the 
Quinquatrus,  the  feast 
of  Minerva;  the  cele- 
bration is  followed  by 
a  scene  before  a  magis- 
trate, resulting  from  a 
fight  engaged  in  by  the  celebrants.  A  mass  of  fuller's  earth 
was  found  in  the  passage  at  m. 

From  the  receipts  found  in  the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus, 
it  appears  that  this  thrifty  Pompeian,  in  the  years  56-60  a.d., 
rented  a  fullery  belonging  to  the  city.  In  view  of  the  nearness 
of  this  establishment  to  his  house,  it  seems  likely  that  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  business  here.  At  the  time  of  the  eruption, 
however,  the  enterprise  was  in  the  hands  of  Marcus  Vesonius 
Primus,  who  lived  in  the  house  next  door  (No.  20),  where  a  por- 
trait herm,  dedicated  to  him  by  his  cashier  {arcarius),  stands  in 
the  atrium  ;  the  house  is  often  called  the  house  of  Orpheus,  from 
the  large  painting  on  the  rear  wall  of  the  garden. 

To  judge  from  the  election  notices  painted  on  the  front  of  the 
fullery  and  on  the  houses  at  either  side.  Primus  must  have  taken 
an  active  interest  in  local  politics.  He  was  an  ardent  partisan, 
as  witness  this  inscription  :  Cn.  Helviuin  aed.  d.  r.  p.  (for  aedi- 
lem,  dignunt  re  publico)  Vesonius  Primus  rogat,  —  '  Vesonius 
Primus  urges  the  election  of  Gnaeus  Helvius  as  aedile,  a  man 


Fig.  228. —  Plan  of  a  fullery. 


THE    FULLERS   AND   THE   TANNERS  397 

worthy  of  public  office.'  The  endorsement  of  Gavins  Rufus  is 
even  stronger :  C.  Gavinm  Ritfuin  II  vir.  o.  v.  f.  utilcui  r.  p. 
{dujimvintm,  oro  vos,facitc,  utilcui  rci publicae)  ]\so)iius  Priiuus 
rogat,  — '  Vesonius  Primus  requests  the  election  of  Gains  Gavius 
Rufus  as  duumvir,  a  man  serviceable  to  public  interests;  do 
elect  him,  I  beg  of  you.' 

In  one  of  the  shorter  recommendations,  Primus  names  his 
occupation :  L.  Ceiiim  Secunduui  II  v.  i.  d.  Priuius  fullo 
ro\_gat\  —  'Primus  the  fuller  asks  the  election  of  Lucius  Ceius 
Secundus  as  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority.'  On  one  occa- 
sion he  united  with  his  employees  in  favoring  a  candidate  for 
the  aedileship :  Cn.  Helviuvi  Sabinum  acd.  Primus  cuui  suis 
fac  [//],  — '  Primus  and  his  household  are  working  for  the  elec- 
tion of  Gnaeus  Helvius  Sabinus  as  aedile.' 

The  fullery  on  Mercury  Street,  like  that  just  described,  had'TT  vi""  -'--■', 
been  made  over  from  a  private  house,  built  in  the  pre-Roman 
period.  Among  other  changes,  the  columns  of  the  large  peri- 
style were  replaced  by  massive  pillars  of  masonry  supporting  a 
gallery  above  for  the  drying  of  clothes.  At  the  rear  are  four 
square  basins,  the  two  larger  of  which  are  more  than  seven  feet 
across ;  the  water  passed  from  one  to  the  other  as  in  the  basins 
of  Primus's  fullery.  In  the  corner  near  the  last  basin  are  six 
rectangular  niches  for  treading  vats,  separated  by  a  low  wall,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  clear  from  Fig.  225.  There  is  a  vaulted 
room  at  the  right  of  the  peristyle,  with  a  cistern  curb,  a  large 
basin  of  masonry,  and  a  stone  table.  Here  a  substance  was 
found  which  the  excavators  supposed  to  be  soap,  but  which  was 
doubtless  fuller's  earth,  like  that  found  in  the  establishment  on 
Stabian  Street. 

There  were  naturally  fewer  tanners  than  fullers  ;  and  so  far 
only  one  tannery  has  been  discovered.  That  is  a  large  estab- 
lishment, however,  filling  almost  an  entire  block  near  the  Sta-  "I"'"' 
bian  Gate  (Ins.  I.  v),  excavated  in  1873.  Like  the  two  larger  ^'-^<=*'^ 
fulleries,  it  occupied  a  building  designed  for  a  house.  The 
appliances  of  the  craft  are  found  in  only  a  small  part  of  the 
structure ;  they  relate  to  two  processes,  —  the  preparation  of 
the  fluids  used  for  tanning,  and  the  manipulation  of  the  hides. 


398 


POMPEII 


V  >(   z. 


The  mixture  for  the  tan  vats  was  prepared  in  a  tank  under  a 
colonnade  opening  on  the  garden.  It  could  be  drawn  off  through 
two  holes  in  the  side  into  a  smaller  basin  below,  or  conducted  by 
means  of  a  gutter  running  along  the  wall  to  three  large  earthen 
vessels. 

The  vats,  fifteen  in  number,  are  in  a  room  formerly  used  as  an 
atrium  (Fig.    229).     They   are  about   5   feet  in   diameter,   and 

from  4  to  about  5^  feet 
deep  ;  they  were  built  of 
masonry,  and  plastered ; 
two  holes  were  made  in 
the  side  of  each  to  serve 
as  a  convenience  in 
climbing  in  and  out. 
Between  adjacent  pairs 
of  pits  was  an  oblong  ba- 
sin about  twenty  inches 
deep,  lined  with  wood. 
On  either  side  of  this 
was  a  large  earthen  jar, 
sunk  in  the  earth ;  a 
small,  round  hole  between  the  basin  and  each  jar  seems  to  mark 
the  place  of  a  pipe  tile,  connected  with  the  former  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  large  pits  were  for  ordinary  tanning ;  the  oblong 
basins  were  probably  used  in  making  fine  leather  {alntd),  a  pro- 
cess in  which  alum  was  the  principal  agent,  the  chemicals  being 
placed  in  the  jars  on  either  side,  and  supplied  to  the  basins 
through  the  pipe  tiles. 

In  the  same  building  four  tools  were  found,  similar  to  those 
used  by  tanners  at  the  present  time.  One  was  a  knife,  of 
bronze,  with  a  charred  wooden  handle  on  the  back  of  the  blade ; 
two  were  scraping  irons,  with  a  handle  on  each  end;  and  there 
was  another  iron  tool  with  a  crescent-shaped  blade. 

The  garden  on  which  the  colonnade  opened  contains  an  open- 
air  triclinium.  The  table  was  ornamented  with  a  mosaic  top, 
now  in  the  Naples  Museum,  with  a  characteristic  design  (Fig. 
230).  The  principal  motive  is  a  skull;  below  is  a  butterfly  on 
the  rim  of  a  wheel,  symbols  of  the  fluttering  of  the  disembodied 


Fig.  229. —  Plan  of  the  vat  room  of  the  tannery. 


THE    FULLERS  AND   THE   TANNERS 


399 


soul  and  of  the  flight  of  time.  On  the  right  and  on  the  left  are  the 
spoils  that  short-lived  man  leaves  behind  him,  —  here  a  wanderer's 
staff,  a  wallet,  and  a  beggar's  tattered  robe;  there,  a  sceptre, 
with  a  mantle  of  royal  purple.     Over  all   is  a  level,  with  the 


4)<L'L^di-(di^  i,Lit'\  I  y 


Fig.  230.  —  Mosaic  top  of  the  table  in  the  garden  of  the  tannery. 


plumb  line  hanging  straight,  symbolic  of  Fate,  that  sooner  or 
later  equalizes  the  lots  of  all  mankind.  The  thought  of  the 
tanner,  or  of  the  earlier  proprietor  of  the  house,  is  easy  to 
divine:   JMors  aurcui  vc liens,    Vivite,  ait,  venio, 

'Death  plucks  my  ear,  and  says, 
"  Live  ! "'  for  I  come.' 


CHAPTER    XLIX 

INNS  AND    IVIXESHOPS 

*•"  Wineshops,  cauponac,  were  numerous  in  Pompeii,  and  the 
remains  are  easily  identified.  Like  the  Italian  osteric,  they  were 
at  the  same  time  eating  houses,  but  the  arrangements  for  drink- 
ing were  the  more  conspicuous,  and  give  character  to  the  ruins. 
The  Roman  inn,  hospitiuni,  or  simply  catipona,  was  a  wineshop 
with  accommodations  for  the  night,  provision  being  also  made 
in  most  cases  for  the  care  of  animals.  Keepers  of  inns,  canponcs, 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  Pompeian  inscriptions,  sometimes  in 
election  notices,  more  often  in  grafifiti. 

Several  inns  have  been  identified  from  signs  and  from  scrib- 
blings  on  the  walls  within.     At  the  entrance  of  one  (west  side 

7^  vm'.'  lu'-  of  Ins.  IX.  vii)  is  painted  Hospitiuvi  Hygini  Firmi,  '  Inn  of 
Hyginius   Firmus.'      The  front  of   the   '  Elephant   Inn  '  (west 

"vTL  i  Hw/M'j  side  of  Ins.  VII.  i)  was  ornamented  with  the  painting  of  an  ele- 
phant in  the  coils  of  a  serpent,  defended  by  a  pygmy.  The 
name  of  the  proprietor  is  perhaps  given  at  the  side  :  Sittiiis 
rcstituit  clipJiantit\m\  '  Sittius  restored  the  elephant,'  referring 
no  doubt  to  the  repainting  of  the  sign.  Evidently  the  owner, 
whether  Sittius  or  some  one  else,  was  anxious  to  rent  the  prem- 
ises ;  below  the  elephant  is  the  painted  notice  :  Hospitium  hie 
locatiir — tnclininvi  cin/i  tribus  Icctis,  — '  Inn  to  let.  Triclinium 
with  three  couches.'  The  rest  of  the  inscription  is  illegible. 
The  plan  of  another  inn  in  the   same  region  (west  side  of 

ijl  .^'m  l\-\^  VII.  xii)  well  illustrates  the  arrangements  of  these  hostelries 
(Fig.  231).  The  main  room  {a\  which  probably  served  as  a 
dining  room,  is  entered  directly  from  the  street.  At  one  side  is 
the  kitchen  (//);  six  sleeping  xooxw's,  {b—g)  open  upon  the  other 
sides.  But  the  landlord  did  not  provide  merely  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  guests  from  out  of  town  ;  he  endeavored  to  attract 
local  patronage  also,  by  means  of  a  wineshop  (;/),  which  opened 

400  \ 


INNS   AND   WINP:SH0PS 


401 


Nji     XN^ 


Fig.  231. —  Plan  of  an 
inn. 


upon  the  street  and  had  a  separate  dining  room  (0).     A  short 
passage  (/)  led  from  the  main  room  to  the  stalls  (k),  in  front  of 
which   was  a  watering  trough.      The  vehicles  were   probably 
crowded  into  the  recess  at  m,  or  the  front  of  a. 
The  two  side  rooms  (/  and/)  were  closets. 

The  walls  of  several  of  the  rooms  contain 
records  of  the  sojourn  of  guests.  ,  C.  Valerius 
Venustus,  'a  pretorian  of  the  first  cohort,  en- 
rolled in  the  century  of  Rufus,'  scratched  his 
name  on  the  wall  of  c,  to  which  also  an  affec- 
tionate husband  confided  his  loneliness  :  '  Here 
slept  Vibius  Restitutus  all  by  himself,  his  heart 
filled  with  longings  for  his  Urbana.'  Four 
players,  one  of  them  a  Martial,  passed  a  night'' 
together  in  the  same  apartment.  In  the  next 
room  (d)  a  patriotic  citizen  of  Puteoli  left  a 
greeting  for  his  native  town  :  '  Well  be  it  ever  with  Puteoli,  col- 
ony of  Nero,  of  the  Claudian  line  ;  C.  Julius  Speratus  wrote  this.' 
This  city,  as  we  learn  from  Tacitus,  received  permission  from 
Nero  to  call  itself  Colonia  Claudia  Neronensis.  Lucifer  and 
Primigenius,  two  friends,  spent  a  night  in  room  /,  Lucceius 
Albanus  of  Abellinum  (Avellino)  in  ^. 

The  arrangement  of  rooms  here  is  so  unlike  that  of  an  ordi- 
nary house  that  the  building  must  have  been  designed  at  the 
beginning  for  a  tavern.  Sometimes  a  dwelling  was  turned  into 
an  inn,  as  in  the  case  of  the  house  of  Sallust,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  the  last  years  of  the  city  must  in  part  at  least  have 
been  used  as  a  hostelry. 

Inns  near  the  gates  had  a  paved  entrance  for  wagons,  inter- 
rupting the  sidewalk.  A  good  example  is  the  inn  of  Hermes,  in  1  ,'\  2|'^,3 
the  first  block  on  the  right  as  one  came  into  the  city  by  the  Sta- 
bian  Gate  (Fig.  232).  On  either  side  of  the  broad  entrance  (a), 
are  winerooms  {l>,  d).  Behind  the  stairway  at  the  right,  which 
leads  from  the  street  to  the  second  story,  is  a  hearth  with  a 
water  heater.  On  the  wall  at  the  left  was  formerly  a  painting 
with  the  two  Lares  and  the  Genius  offering  sacrifice  ;  below  was 
the  figure  of  a  man  pouring  wine  from  'an  amphora  into  an 
earthen  hogshead  {doliuni),  and  beside  it  was  written  Hermes, 


402 


POMPEII 


apparently  the  name  of  the  proprietor.  The  wagons  stood  in 
the  large  room  at  the  rear(/),  with  which  the  narrow  stable  {k) 
is  connected ;  in  one  corner  is  a  watering  trough  of  masonry. 
On  the  ground  floor  were  only  three  sleeping  rooms  {c,  g,  and  h), 
but  there  were  upper  rooms  at  the  rear,  reached 
by  a  flight  of  stairs  in  /;  these  were  probably 

nnot  connected  with  the  upper  rooms  of  the  front 
/'  part,  which  (over  a,  b,  c,  d,  c),  having  a  street 

entrance,  may  have  been  rented  separately. 

The    Pompeian    inns    were    doubtless    fair 
representatives  of  their  class  in   the  different 
Roman  cities.     Those  of  Rome  must  have  been 
numerous,  but  are  rarely  mentioned,  and  inn- 
keepers are  generally  referred  to  in  terms  of 
disrespect.     The  ordinary  charges  seem  to  have 
been  low,  and  the  accommodations  were  of  a 
corresponding  character.     Owing  to  the  univer- 
sal custom  of  furnishing  private  entertainment  to  all  with  whom 
there  existed  any  ground  of  hospitality,  places  of  public  enter- 
tainment tended  to  become  the  resorts  of  the  vicious. 


Fig.  232- —  Plan  of  the 
inn  of  Hermes. 


l/ii 


'    i     I 


Fie 


233.  —  Plan  of  a 
wineshop. 


The  wineshop  of  which  the  plan  is  here  given  (Fig.  233)  is  on 
the  east  side  of  Mercury  Street,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  Ins. 
VI.  X.  It  was  designed  not  only  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  guests  who  would  go  inside 
to  partake  of  refreshments,  but  also  for  the 
sale  of  drinks  over  the  counter  to  those  who 
might  stop  a  moment  in  passing.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  the  arrangement  of  the  main  room 
{a),  which  has  a  long  counter  in  front,  with  a 
series  of  small  marble  shelves  arranged  like  stairs  on  one  end  of 
it,  for  the  display  of  cups  and  glasses ;  on  the  other  is  a  place 
for  heating  a  vessel  over  a  fire.  Large  jars  are  set  in  the  counter, 
in  which  liquids  and  eatables  could  be  kept.  In  the  corner  of 
the  room,  at  the  right  as  one  enters,  a  hearth  is  placed.  In 
view  of  the  provision  for  heating  water,  we  are  safe  in  calling 
this  a  therinopoliitni,  a  wineshop  which  made  a  specialty  of  fur- 
nishing hot  drinks.     The  passage  at  the  rear  of  the  hearth  {c) 


INNS  AND   WINESHOPS 


403 


Fig.  234.  —  Scene  in  a  wineshop.    Wall  painting. 


is  connected  with  a  small  room  {d)  and  also  with  the  adjoining 
house,  which  may  have  been  the  residence  of  the  proprietor, 
or  may  have  been  used  for  lodgings. 

The  long  room  with  an  entrance  from  the  side  street  {b,  now 
walled  up)  was  in- 
tended for  the  use  of 
those  who  preferred  to 
eat  and  drink  at  their 
leisure.  The  walls  are 
decorated  with  a  series 
of  paintings  presenting 
realistic  scenes  from 
the  life  of  such  places. 
We  see  the  guests  eat- 
ing, drinking,  and  play- 
ing with  dice.  Some 
are  standing,  others  sit- 
ting on  stools  ;  it  is  the 

kind  of  public  house  that  Martial  calls  a  'stool-ridden  cookshop,' 
in  which  couches  were  not  provided,  but  only  seats  without 
backs  (Mart.  Ep.  V.  Ixx.  3). 

In  one  of  the  scenes  (Fig.  234)  four  men  are  drinking,  about 
a  round  table,  while  a  boy  waits  on  them  ;  two  of  the  figures 

have  pointed  hoods  like  those 
seen  to-day  in  Sicily  and  some 
parts  of  Italy.  Strings  of 
sausage,  hams,  and  other  eat- 
ables hang  from  a  pole  sus- 
pended under  the  ceiling. 

Some  of  the  figures  in  the 

pictures  are  accompanied  by 

inscriptions.      Thus    by    the 

side  of  a  guest  for  whom  a 

waiter  is  pouring  out  a  glass 

of  wine   is  written  :    Da  fri- 

dam  ptisillmn,  'Add  cold   water  —  just  a  little.'     In  a  similar 

connection  we  read,  Adde  calicem  Setijuiiu,  '  Another  cup  of 

Setian  ! '     The  Setian  wine  came  from  a  town  in  Latium  at  the 


Delivery  of  wine.    Wall  painting. 


404  POMPEII 

foot  of  the  hills  bordering  the  Pontine  Marshes,  now  Sezze ;  we 
infer  that  our  wineshop  sold  not  merely  the  products  of  neigh- 
boring vineyards,  but  choice  brands  from  other  regions  as  well. 
Wines  from  the  locality  were  probably  brought  to  town  in  am- 
phorae ;  the  delivery  of  a  consignment  from  a  distance  is  shown 
in  a  separate  scene  (Fig.  235),  in  which  amphorae  are  being 
filled  from  a  large  skin  on  a  wagon;  the  team  of  mules  is  mean- 
while resting,  unharnessed,  the  yoke  hanging  on  the  end  of  the 
pole. 

The  pictures  present  the  life  of  a  tavern  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  landlord;  but  occasionally  we  have  a  suggestion 
of  the  other  side,  as  in  the  following  couplet,  the  faulty  spelling 
of  which  we  can  forgive  on  account  of  its  pithiness:  Talia  te 
fallant  utiiiaui  mc\ji\dacia,  copo,    Tii  ve\_n'\des  aciiani   et  bibcs 

ipse  menim, — 

'  Landlord,  may  your  lies  malign 

Bring  destruction  on  your  head  ! 
You  yourself  drink  unmixed  wine. 
Water  sell  your  guests  instead.'' 

The  wineshop  in  which  this  graffito  is  found  (I.  ii.  24)  is 
larger  than  that  on  Mercury  Street,  and  has  several  dining 
rooms.  Connected  with  it  is  a  garden  with  a  triclinium,  once 
shaded  by  vines,  which  calls  to  mind  the  invitation  of  the  bar- 
maid in  the  Copa  :  — 

'  Here  a  garden  you  will  find. 

Cool  retreat,  with  cups  and  roses, 
Lute  and  pipe,  for  mirth  designed, 
Bower  that  mask  of  reeds  encloses. 

'  Come,  weary  traveller,  lie  and  rest 

'Neath  the  shade  of  vines  o'er-spreading. 
Wreath  of  roses  freshly  pressed 

On  your  head  its  fragrance  shedding." 

All  the  pictures  found  in  Pompeian  wineshops  bear  out  the 
inference,  based  upon  numerous  allusions  in  classical  writers, 
that  such  places  everywhere  were  in  the  main  frequented  by 
the  lower  classes;  among  the  adjectives  applied  to  taverns  by 
the  poets  are  'dirty,'  'smoky,'  and  'black.'  They  were  haunted 
by  gamblers  and  criminals,  and  the  Hfe  was  notoriously  immoral. 


'W 
KEY  TO   THE    LEFT    SIDE 

24.   Villa  of  Diomedes. 


16- 

-23- 

Tombs  —  Group  III. 

16 

Unfinished  tomb. 

17 

Tomb  of  Umbricius 
Scaurus. 

18 

Round  tomb. 

19 

Sepulchral  enclosure. 

20 

Tomb  of  Calventius 
Quietus. 

21 

Sepulchral  enclosure  of 
Istacidius  Helenus. 

22 

Tomb  of  Naevoleia 
Tyche. 

23 

Triclinium  Funebre. 

5- 

5-    ' 

So-called  Villa  of 
Cicero. 

1-4  a. 

Tombs  —  Group  I. 

I. 

Sepulchral  niche  of  Cer- 
rinius  Restitutus. 

2. 

Sepulchral  bench  of  A. 
Veins. 

3- 

Tomb  of  M.  Porcius. 

4- 

Sepulchral  bench  of 
Mamia. 

4a 

.    Tomb  of  the  Istacidii. 

A. 

Herculaneum  Gate. 

C. 

Ba^ 

'  Road. 

PLAN   v.— THE   STREET 


i^^yS. 


SIDE 


KEY    TO    THE 

Tombs  —  Group  IV. 

33.  Unfinished  tomb. 

34.  Tomb  with  the  marble  door. 

35.  Unfinished  tomb. 

36.  Sepulchral    enclosure    with    small 
pyramids. 

37.  Tomb  of  Luccius  Libella. 

38.  Tomb  of  Ceius  Labeo. 

39.  Tomb  without  a  name. 

40.  Sepulchral  niche  of  Salvius. 

41 .  Sepulchral  niche  of  Velasius  Gratus. 

42.  Tomb  of  M.  Arrius  Diomedes. 

43.  Tomb  of  Arria. 

SAiMnite  Graves. 

Villa. 

ID.  1 1,  13,  14.    Shops. 

12.    Garden  belonging  to  Tombs  8  and  g. 

15.    Street  entrance  of  Inn. 

16-28.    Rooms  belonging  to  the  Inn. 

29-30.    Potter's  establishment. 

Tombs  —  Group  II. 

1 .  Tomb  without  a  name. 

2.  Sepulchral    enclosure    of    Terentius 
Felix. 

3.  4.    Tombs  without  names. 

5.  Sepulchral  enclosure. 

6.  Garland  tomb. 

7.  Sepulchral  enclosure. 

8.  Tomb  of  the  Blue  Glass  Vase. 

9.  Sepulchral  niche. 

A.  Herculaxeum  Gate. 

B.  City  Wall. 
D.   Road  along  City  Wall. 

E-E.   Vesuvius  Road. 


OF   TOMES. 


iii-iti-C,^ 


PART    IV 

THE   TOMBS 
CHAPTER    L 

POMPEIAN  BURIAL   PLACES.  — THE  STREET  OF  TOMBS 

The  tombs  of  Pompeii,  like  those  of  Rome,  were  placed  in 
close  array  along  the  sides  of  the  roads  that  led  from  the  city 
gates.  Only  a  few  have  been  uncovered  ;  how^  many  still  lie 
concealed  under  the  mantle  of  volcanic  debris  that  rests  upon 
the  plain,  no  one  has  yet  ventured  to  conjecture.  The  tomb- 
stone of  a  magistrate  of  one  of  the  suburbs  was  found  at  Scafati, 
a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  the  ancient  town  ;  and  others  have  been 
brought  to  light  on  the  east,  south,  and  west  sides.  The  most 
interesting  and  best  know'n  tombs  are  those  of  the  Street  of 
Tombs,  in  front  of  the  Herculaneum  Gate ;  but  important  re- 
mains have  been  found  also  near  the  Stabian  and  Nocera  gates, 
and  burial  places  of  a  humbler  sort  lie  along  the  city  wall  near 
the  Nola  Gate. 

Most  of  the  tombs  thus  far  excavated  belong  to  the  Early- 
Empire,  having  been  built  between  the  reign  of  Augustus  and 
79  A.D.  Two  or  three  date  from  the  end  of  the  Republic  ;  and 
a  small  corner  of  an  Oscan  cemetery  has  been  uncovered  on  the 
northwest  side  of  the  city.  Remains  of  skeletons  were  found 
only  in  the  Oscan  graves ;  the  Roman  burial  places  were  all 
arranged  with  reference  to  the  practice  of  cremation,  the  ashes 
being  deposited  in  urns. 

The  tombs  present  so  great  a  variety  of  form  and  construction 
that  it  is  impossible  to  classify  them  in  a  summary  way,  or  to 
dismiss  them  with  the  presentation  of  two  or  three  typical  exam- 
ples.    The  character  of  the  monument  varied  not  merely  accord- 

405 


4o6  POMPEII 

ing  to  the  taste  and  means,  but  also  according  to  the  point  of 
view  or  rehgious  feeling  of  the  builder.  Some  deemed  it  more 
fitting  that  the  ashes  of  the  dead  should  be  covered  over  with 
earth ;  others  preferred  to  place  them  in  a  conspicuous  tomb 
that  would  please  the  eye  and  impress  the  imagination  of  the 
beholder.  To  many  the  matter  of  paramount  importance  seemed 
to  be  the  provision  for  the  worship  of  the  dead,  the  arrangement 
of  the  tomb  so  that  offerings  could  easily  be  made  to  the  ashes. 
Others  still  desired  to  have  the  sepulchre  convenient  for  the  liv- 
ing, who  at  times  would  gather  there,  and  tarry  near  the  resting 
place  of  the  departed.  And  there  were  not  a  few  who  attempted, 
in  the  construction  of  a  monument,  to  accomplish  at  the  same 
time  several  of  these  ends.  The  architectural  designs  were  sug- 
gested by  the  form  of  an  altar,  a  temple,  a  niche,  a  commemora- 
tive arch,  or  a  semicircular  bench,  scJiola. 

On  account  of  this  diversity  of  aim  and  of  type,  it  will  be  most 
convenient  to  study  the  tombs  in  topographical  groups,  com- 
mencing with  those  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city. 

The  highway  that  passes  under  the  Herculaneum  Gate  runs 
almost  directly  west,  descending  with  a  gentle  grade.  Above  it 
on  the  north  side  is  the  ridge  formed  by  the  stream  of  lava  on 
the  end  of  which  the  city  lay ;  here,  before  the  eruption,  were 
sightly  villas.  Below,  to  the  south,  was  the  sea,  not  so  far  away 
as  now,  over  the  shimmering  surface  of  which  the  traveller,  as 
he  rode  along,  could  catch  charming  glimpses  of  the  heights 
above  Sorrento  and  of  Capri.  A  short  distance  from  the  gate 
on  the  left,  a  branch  road,  which  for  convenience  we  may  call 
the  Bay  Road,  led  directly  to  the  sea.  Another  branch,  on  the 
right,  followed  the  direction  of  the  city  wall ;  further  from  the 
gate  on  the  same  side,  a  third,  which  may  be  designated  as 
the  Vesuvius  Road,  ran  off  from  the  highway  in  the  direction 
of  the  mountain.  The  highway  itself,  so  far  as  excavated,  has 
been  named  the  Street  of  Tombs. 

The  tombs  that  have  been  uncovered  here  are  distributed  in 
four  groups.  The  first,  on  the  left  side,  extends  from  the  gate 
to  the  Bay  Road;  it  comprises  Nos.  1-4  <?  on  Plan  V.  The 
second,  on  the  right  (Nos.  1-9),  includes  the  tombs  between  the 


THE    STREET   OF   TOMBS  407 

gate  and  the  beginning  of  the  Vesuvius  Road.  The  third  group, 
on  the  left,  lies  between  the  ruins  of  the  villa  to  which  the  name 
of  Cicero  has  been  attached  and  the  villa  of  Diomedes ;  the 
tombs  are  numbered  on  the  plan  16-23.  The  monuments  of 
the  fourth  group  occupy  the  tongue  of  ground  at  the  right  be- 
tween the  highway  and  the  Vesuvius  Road  (33-43).  The  outer 
parts  of  the  two  villas  by  which  the  continuity  of  the  series  of 
tombs  on  both  sides  is  interrupted,  appear  to  have  been  used  as 
inns  ;  along  the  street  in  front  of  each  there  was  a  colonnade 
supported  by  pillars,  behind  which  were  small  rooms  opening 
toward  the  street. 

At  the  further  end  of  the  villa  on  the  right  ( 10-29)  is  the  pot- 
ter's workshop  (29-30),  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter  (p.  386). 
Beyond  this  are  the  Oscan  graves  (31-32),  several  of  which  have  L^l  -  ^"^^j 
been  explored.     In  them  were  found  rough  stone  coffins,  made  of  [s   S>*^0  i8^>) 
slabs  and  fragments  of  limestone,  containing  remains  of  skeletons         yj?  i5'4.-i4>>) 
together  with  small  painted  vases,  of  the  sort  manufactured  in 
Campania  in  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.C.     Two  coins 
were  found,  in  separate  graves,  with  Oscan  legends  that  have 
not  yet  been   deciphered ;    apparently  they  were    from    Nola. 
The  burial  places  lie  close  together,  and  evidently  belong  to  a 
cemetery  for  people  of  humble  station ;  there  are  no  headstones 
to  mark  the  graves.     This  is  the  only  place  at  Pompeii  in  which 
painted  vases  have  been  found. 

A  narrow  strip  of  land  on  each  side  of  the  road  belonged  to 
the  city,  and  burial  lots  therein  were  granted  by  the  municipal 
council  to  citizens  who  had  rendered  public  service.  Others, 
however,  might  obtain  lots  by  purchase  ;  private  ownership  may 
be  assumed  unless  the  gift  of  the  city  is  indicated  in  the  inscrip- 
tion. The  location  of  several  tombs  —  i,  3,  4,  6  on  the  right, 
3  on  the  left  —  shows  that  the  direction  of  the  street  near  the 
gate  was  changed  after  sepulchral  monuments  had  begun  to  be 
erected. 

An  interesting  inscription  referring  to  the  municipal  owner- 
ship of  land  was  found  at  the  further  corner  of  the  Bay  Road  : 
Ex  aiictoi'itate  imp.  Caesaris  Vespasiani  Aug.  loca  publica  a  p)-i- 
vatis  possessa  T.  Siiedius  Clemens  tribjinus  causis  cognitis  et 
metisut'is  factis  rei publieae  Pompciatwriim  restitiiit,  —  '  By  virtue 


4o8  POMPEII 

of  authority  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Emperor  Vespasian 
Caesar  Augustus,  Titus  Suedius  Clemens,  tribune,  having  inves- 
tigated the  facts  and  taken  measurements,  restored  to  the  city 
of  Pompeii  plots  of  ground  belonging  to  it  which  were  in  the 
possession  of  private  individuals.' 

To  judge  from  the  location  of  the  inscription,  the  land  which 
the  military  tribune  sent  as  commissioner  by  Vespasian  gave 
back  to  the  city,  must  have  been  at  the  sides  of  the  Bay  Road. 
A  marble  statue  of  a  man  dressed  in  a  toga  and  holding  a  scroll 
in  his  hand,  was  found  near  by.  It  was  probably  a  portrait  of 
Suedius  Clemens,  and  may  have  stood  in  a  niche  in  the  villa  of 
Cicero. 

There  is  an  implied  reference  to  the  Bay  Road  also  in  another 
inscription  which  was  found  out  of  its  proper  place,  in  the  court 
of   the    adjoining    inn  :    thermae  •  m  •  crassi  •  frvgi  •  aqva  • 

MARINA   •   ET   •    BALN    •  AQVA   •    DVLCI  '  lANVARIVS    •    L '  Bathing 

establishment  of  Marcus  Crassus  Frugi.  Warm  sea  baths  and 
freshwater  baths.  (Superintendent)  the  freedman  Januarius.' 
We  learn  from -Pliny  the  Elder  that  M.  Licinius  Crassus  Frugi, 
who  was  consul  in  64  a.d.,  and  was  afterwards  (in  68)  put  to 
death  by  Nero,  owned  a  hot  spring  which  gushed  up  out  of  the 
sea.  This  spring,  then,  was  at  Pompeii,  and  was  utilized  for 
baths.  The  inscription  is  at  the  same  time  an  advertisement 
and  a  sign  directing  people  down  the  Bay  Road  to  the  bath 
house. 

A  general  view  of  the  Street  of  Tombs  is  given  in  Plate  X. 
It  is  taken  from  the  high  ground  beyond  the  fourth  group,  as 
one  looks  toward  the  Herculaneum  Gate.  The  rugged  mass  of 
Monte  Sant'  Angelo  looms  up  in  the  distance ;  at  the  right  the 
trees  skirting  the  edge  of  the  excavations  form  an  effective  back- 
ground. The  beauty  of  the  surroundings,  especially  on  a  sum- 
mer morning,  the  associations  of  the  street,  its  deserted  appear- 
ance, and  the  unbroken,  oppressive  stillness  give  rise  to  mingled 
feelings  of  pleasure  and  sadness  in  the  visitor. 

We  commence  our  survey  with  the  first  group  of  tombs 
at  the  left  as  one  passes  out  from  the  Herculaneum  Gate. 
Close  by  the  gate  is  the  tomb  of  Cerrinius  Restitutus  (i  on 
the  plan,  left  side).      It  is  simply  a  low  vaulted  niche,  having 


THE    STREET   OF   TOMBS 


409 


seats  at  the  sides.  Against  the  rear  wall  stood  a  marble  tomb- 
stone, with  a  place  for  a' carved  portrait;  in  front  of  it  was  a 
small  altar  under  which  doubtless  was  placed  the  urn  contain- 
ing the  ashes.  Both  altar  and  tombstone  (now  in  the  Naples 
Museum)  have  the  inscription  :  M.  Ceyriiiiiis  Restitiitus,  Angiista- 
lis,  loc.  d.  d.  d.  (for  locits  datiis  dccnrionum  decirto),  —  'Marcus 
Cerrinius  Restitutus,  member  of  the  brotherhood  of  Augustus. 
Place  of  burial  granted  by  vote  of  the  city  council.'  The  tomb 
here  was  designed  as  a  structure  to  which  relatives  might  repair 
on  anniversary  days  in  order  to  make  offerings  to  the  dead. 
The_  remains  of  the  other  tombs  in.the  first  group  are  shown 
"w','  2.  V'^  "wCh*-]  "w> 


-I' 


4/ 


i^/' ._^:_ .;..._.^ .  .     '.   ..  _. _  ..._  '^l^^MMlM 


Fig.  236. —  Scpiilclual  ljoncliL-.'5  of  W-iuri  .mj  ALnnia  ;   tombs  ot   Porcius  and  the  Istacidii. 


in  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  236).  We  notice  first  two 
large  semicircular  benches.  That  at  the  left  (2  on  the  plan) 
marks  the  resting-place  of  Veins.  It  is  of  tufa,  and  nearly 
twenty  feet  wide  at  the  front.  The  ends  are  modelled  to  repre- 
sent winged  lion's  paws,  the  carving  of  which  is  full  of  vigor 
and  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  lion's  paws  in  the  Small 
Theatre  (Fig.  70).  The  statue  that  once  stood  at  the  rear,  on  a 
high  pedestal,  has  disappeared,  but  the  inscription  remains : 
A.  Veto  J\I.  f.  II  vir.  i.  d.  iter,  qnitiq.  trib.  milit.  ab  populo  ex 
d.  d.,  —  'To  the  memory  of  Aulus  Veins,  son  of  Marcus,  twice 
duumvir  with  judiciary  authority,  quinquennial  duumvir,  military 
tribune  by  the  choice  of  the  people.  (Erected)  by  order  of  the 
city  council'     The  city  not  only  gave  a  burial  place,  but  built 


4IO  POMPEII 

the  tomb  as  well.  The  cinerary  urn  was  probably  placed  in  the 
earth  in  the  narrow  un walled  space  behind  the  bench. 

This  monument  was  intended  at  the  same  time  to  do  honor  to 
the  dead  and  render  service  to  the  living.  Here,  on  feast  days 
of  the  dead,  relatives  could  gather  and  partake  of  a  commemo- 
rative meal ;  but  at  all  times  the  inviting  seat  and  conspicuous 
statue  served  to  maintain  that  friendly  relation  with  the  living, 
the  desire  for  which  so  often  finds  expression  in  Roman  epitaphs. 
The  portrait  and  inscription  made  it  seem  as  if  Veins  himself 
offered  a  friendly  greeting  to  those  that  passed  by,  and  was 
greeted  by  them  in  turn  as  they  looked  upon  his  face  and  read 
his  name. 

The  other  bench  (4)  was  evidently  built  by  the  heirs  of  a 
priestess,  Mamia,  upon  a  lot  given  by  the  city.  The  inscription 
appears  in  large  letters  on  the  back  of  the  seat :  JSIaviiae  P.  f. 
saccrdoti  piiblicac  ;  locus  sepultuAjic^  datiis  decuriojuiui  dear  to, — ■ 
'  To  the  memory  of  Mamia,  daughter  of  Publius  Mamius,  priest- 
ess of  the  city.  Place  of  burial  granted  by  order  of  the  muni- 
cipal council.'  In  this  instance,  also,  the  cinerary  urn  was 
probably  buried  in  the  earth  behind  the  bench.  A  certain  deli- 
cacy in  the  modelling  of  the  lion's  paws  seems  to  indicate  for 
this  monument  a  somewhat  later  date  than  that  of  the  monu- 
ment to  Veins,  —  possibly  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  or 
the  reign  of  Tiberius.  The  date  of  erection  is  not  given  in  the 
case  of  any  Pompeian  tomb. 

Between  the  two  benches  we  see  a  lava  base  and  the  core  of 
a  superstructure  ;  they  belong  to  the  tomb  of  Marcus  Porcius. 
The  name  is  known  from  a  boundary  inscription  which  appears 
on  two  small  blocks  of  lava  at  the  corners  of  the  lot  in  front : 
AT.  Porci  M.  f.  ex  dec.  decret.  in  frontein  pcd.  xxv,  in  agnnn  ped. 
XXV,  —  '(Lot)  of  Marcus  Porcius  son  of  Marcus,  granted  by 
order  of  the  city  council ;  twenty-five  feet  front,  twenty-five 
feet  deep.' 

This  Porcius  may  have  been  one  of  the  builders  of  the  Small 
Theatre  and  the  Amphitheatre,  or  a  son  of  that  Porcius,  whose 
name  appears  on  the  altar  of  the  temple  of  Apollo.  The  tomb 
was  in  the  form  of  an  altar  ;  the  terminal  volutes  at  the  top,  of 
travertine,  have  been  preserved.     The  sides  were  of  tufa  blocks, 


THl-:    STREET   OF   TOMBS 


411 


which  may  have  been  carried  off  for  building  purposes  after  the 
tomb  was  damaged  by  the  earthquake  of  63.  The  interior  was 
made  hollow  to  save  expense  ;  there  was  no  sepulchral  chamber, 


Fig 


237- 


The  tomb  of  the  Istacidii,  rebtored. 


the  ashes  being  placed  in  the  earth  under  the  monument.     This 
tomb  is  the  oldest  of  the  group. 

The  conspicuous  monument  of  the  Istacidii  (4  a)  stands  behind 
the  tombs  of  Mamia  and  Porcius,  at  the  left  of  the  Bav  Road. 
It  is  raised  upon  a  narrow  terrace,  enclosed  by  a  balustrade  of 


412  POMPEII 

masonry,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a  temple,  with  half-columns 
at  the  sides.  The  remains  of  the  lower  story  alone  are  seen  in 
Fig.  236 ;  above  this  was  a  circular  structure  formed  by  columns 
supporting  a  roof,  under  which  were  placed  statues  of  members 
of  the  family  (Fig.  237).  The  lower  story  contains  a  sepulchral 
chamber,  entered  by  a  door  at  the  rear ;  in  the  middle  of  the 
chamber  is  a  massive  pillar  reaching  to  the  vaulted  ceiling.  The 
decoration  of  the  room  is  simple,  of  the  third  style.  On  one  side 
is  a  large  niche,  for  two  urns,  those  of  the  head  of  the  family 
and  his  wife ;  the  other  three  sides  contain  ten  smaller  niches. 

The  principal  inscription  of  the  tomb  has  not  been  found,  but 
a  number  of  names  are  preserved  on  the  commemorative  stones 
set  up  in  the  plot  of  ground  about  it.  These  stones  are  of  a 
peculiar  type,  met  with  elsewhere  only  at  Capua  and  Sorrento ; 
we  shall  call  them  bust  stones.  The  outline  resembles  that  of 
a  human  head  and  neck  terminating  below  in  a  pillar,  but  the 
front  was  left  smooth,  and  an  inscription  was  cut  or  painted  on 
the  bust.  Difference  of  sex  was  indicated  by  the  treatment  of 
the  hair;  an  example  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  240.  The  bust  stones 
of  men  are  generally  larger  than  those  of  women ;  those  of  chil- 
dren are  still  smaller,  the  size  perhaps  varying  with  the  age. 

The  bust  stones  here  may  refer  to  those  whose  ashes  w^ere 
deposited  in  urns  in  the  tomb,  or  to  others  whose  urns  were 
buried  in  the  plot  of  ground  in  which  it  stands.  From  them  we 
learn  that  the  head  of  the  family  was  Numerius  Istacidius,  and 
that  he  had  a  daughter,  Istacidia  Rufilla,  who  was  a  priestess. 
Representatives  of  two  other  families,  the  Melissaei  and  the 
Buccii,  are  named  on  similar  stones  found  in  a  plot  connected 
with  that  of  the  Istacidii  at  the  rear.  The  three  families  were 
perhaps  closely  connected  bv  intermarriage.  The  bust  stone 
of  one  of  the  Melissaei,  Gnaeus  JNIelissaeus  Aper,  duumvir  in 
3-4  A.D.,  stood  in  the  same  enclosure  with  those  of  the  Istacidii. 

Only  one  of  the  nine  tombs  in  the  second  group  (2)  bears  a 
name.  In  the  case  of  two  (3  and  4)  the  superstructure  has 
completely  disappeared,  leaving  only  the  lava  bases  in  place. 
Another  (5)  has  not  been  excavated  ;  the  front  of  the  burial  lot 
has  been  cleared,  but  the  monument,  lying  further  back,  is  still 
covered. 


THE   STREET   OF   TOMBS  413 

The  first  tomb  lies  in  the  angle  between  the  highway  and  the 
branch  road  along  the  wall,  which  was  evidently  laid  out  after 
the  monument  was  erected.  It  has  the  form  of  an  altar,  and 
must  have  resembled  in  appearance  the  tomb  of  Porcius  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  street.  Here,  however,  there  is  a  sepul- 
chral chamber  in  the  base,  entered  by  a  low,  narrow  passage, 
which  was  closed  until  1887  by  a  block  of  stone.  In  corners  of 
this  chamber  two  cinerary  urns,  in  lead  cases,  were  found 
covered  with  earth  and  with  the  remains  of  a  funeral  pyre  — 
bits  of  wood  and  iron  nails  used  in  building  the  pyre,  together 
with  pieces  of  a  richly  carved  ivory  casket  and  broken  perfume 
vials  of  terra  cotta.  Among  the  fragments  of  bone  in  each  urn 
was  a  coin  of  Augustus.  Though  the  ashes  of  the  dead  were 
here  placed  in  a  burial  vault,  it  was  nevertheless  considered 
important  to  cover  them  with  earth.  It  was  not  thought  neces- 
sary, however,  to  leave  the  vault  accessible  for  the  performance 
of  sacred  rites  in  honor  of  the  dead ;  the  entrance,  securely 
closed,  was  only  to  be  unsealed  for  the  admission  of  new  urns. 

The  next  tomb  (2)  is  of  an  entirely  different  type  from  any  of 
those  previously  described.  It  is  an  unroofed  enclosure,  entered 
by  a  door  at  one  end.  As  we  learn  from  the  inscription,  it  was 
built  in  honor  of  Terentius  Felix  by  his  widow,  the  city  furnish- 
ing the  burial  lot  and  a  contribution  of  two  thousand  sesterces 
(about  $90)  toward  the  expense  :  T.  Tcrentio  T.  f.  Men.  Felici 
inaiori  acdil\i'\  ;  hnic  pnblice  locus  datus  ct  HS  00  00.  Fabia 
Probi  f.  Sabina  uxor,  — '  To  the  memory  of  Titus  Terentius 
Felix  the  Elder,  son  of  Titus,  of  the  tribe  Menenia,  aedile.  The 
place  of  burial  was  given  by  the  city,  with  two  thousand  ses- 
terces. His  wife,  Fabia  Sabina,  daughter  of  Fabius  Probus 
(built  this  monument).'  Pompeians  who  were  Roman  citizens 
were  enrolled  in  the  tribe  Menenia. 

The  cinerary  urn  of  Felix  was  of  glass.  It  was  protected  by 
a  lead  case  and  placed  in  an  earthen  jar,  which  was  buried  in 
the  earth  under  a  small  altar  or  table  of  masonry  against  the 
wall  on  the  left  as  one  enters.  Here  also  was  a  tombstone, 
with  the  inscription,  '  To  the  elder  Terentius  ' ;  he  probably  left 
a  son  with  the  same  name.  In  the  urn,  or  near  it,  were  found 
two  coins,  one  of  Augustus,  the  other  of  Claudius,  deposited  to 


414 


POMPEII 


pay  the  fare  of  Charon.  The  right  side  of  the  enclosure  was 
set  off  by  a  low  wall ;  here  several  urns  belonging  to  other 
members  of  the  household  were  buried.  Shells  of  oysters  and 
other  shellfish  were  found  in  the  main  room,  remains  of  a 
banquet  in  honor  of  the  dead ;  the  libations  were  poured  upon 
the   earth  above  the  urns.     The  plan  of  this  tomb  closely  re- 


Fig.  238.  —  View  of  the  Street  of  loinljb. 
At  the  left,  the  Bay  Road  and  remains  of  the  so-called  villa  of  Cicero;  at  the  right,  Gar- 
land tomb,  foundation  of  the  tomb  of  the  Blue  Glass  Vase,  and  semicircular  niche. 


sembles  that  of  the  enclosure  in  front  of  the  Doric  temple  in 
the  Forum  Triangulare  (p.  139). 

Of  the  remaining  tombs  of  the  second  group,  two  are  promi- 
nent, and  may  readily  be  distinguished  in  the  accompanying 
illustration  (Fig.  238),  the  so-called  Garland  tomb  (6  on  the 
plan),  and  the  roofed  semicircular  niche  at  the  end  (9).  The 
Garland  tomb  has  the  shape  of  a  temple,  with  pilasters  instead 
of  columns,  between  which  hang  festoons  of  leaves  and  flowers. 
It  is  solid ;  the  cinerary  urn  was  probably  placed  underneath. 


THE   STREET   OF   TOMBS  415 

The  form  of  the  second  story  cannot  be  determined.  The  ma- 
terial is  tufa,  coated  with  white  stucco,  and  the  monument  is  one 
of  the  oldest  in  the  series,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  Republic. 

Adjoining  the  Garland  tomb  is  a  simple  sepulchral  enclosure 
(7)  with  an  entrance  from  the  street.  Between  this  and  the 
roofed  niche  we  see  in  Fig.  238  the  limestone  base  of  a  tomb, 
like  those  seen  in  Plate  X,  at  the  right ;  the  altar-shaped 
superstructure  has  disappeared  (8).  This  is  called  the  tomb 
of  the  Blue  Glass  Vase.  The  base  contains  a  sepulchral 
chamber,  entered  by  a  door  at  the  rear.  Here  three  urns,  two 
of  glass  and  one  of  terra  cotta,  were  found,  standing  in  niches. 
On  the  floor  were  several  statuettes,  a  couple  of  small  figures  of 
animals,  and  a  mask  with  a  Phrygian  cap,  —  all  of  terra  cotta. 

In  beauty  of  material,  harmony  of  design,  and  skill  of  work- 
manship, one  of  the  glass  urns,  which  gave  the  name  to  the 
tomb  and  is  now  preserved  in  the  Naples  Museum,  ranks  with 
the  finest  examples  of  its  class  in  the  world.  Among  specimens 
of  ancient  glass  it  stands  second  only  to  the  famous  Portland 
vase  in  the  British  Museum,  which  was  found  in  a  tomb  near 
Rome.  The  urn  has  the  form  of  an  amphora ;  the  support  seen 
at  the  bottom  (Fig.  239)  is  modern.  It  is  decorated  with  reliefs 
cut  in  a  layer  of  pure  white  on  a  background  of  dark  blue. 
Near  the  bottom  is  a  narrow  band,  showing  goats  and  sheep  in 
pasture.  Resting  on  this  are  two  bacchic  masks,  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  vase ;  vines  laden  with  clusters  rise  in  graceful 
arabesques  above  the  masks,  dividing  the  body  of  the  vase  into 
two  fields,  which  present  scenes  from  the  vintage. 

One  of  these  scenes  is  reproduced  in  Fig.  239.  The  vintage 
is  interpreted  as  a  festival  of  Bacchus.  Above  is  a  festoon  of 
fruits  and  flowers.  At  the  sides  are  two  boys  on  elevated  seats, 
one  playing  the  double  flute,  the  other  holding  a  Pan's  pipe  in 
his  hands,  ready  to  take  his  turn ;  the  'grapes  are  gathered  and 
pressed  to  an  accompaniment  of  Bacchic  airs,  the  two  players 
following  each  other  with  alternate  strains.  A  third  boy,  tread- 
ing the  grapes  in  a  round  vat,  shakes  the  thyrsus  in  honor  of 
the  Wine-god,  while  a  companion  empties  in  fresh  bunches. 
The  scene  is  full  of  action ;  no  reproduction  can  do  justice  to 
the  delicacy  and  finish  of  the  original. 


4i6 


POMPEII 


A  bench  of  masonry  runs  along  the  inner  wall  of  the  semi- 
circular niche  (9),  which  is  covered  by  a  roof  in  the  form  of  a 


Fig.  239.  —  Glass  vase  with  vintage  scene,  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  Blue  Glass  Vase. 


half  dome  and  opens  upon  the  street  as  do  the  large  unroofed 
monuments  of  Veius  and  Mamia.  A  blank  marble  tablet  was 
placed  in  the  gable  ;  the  builder  of  the  monument,  who  was 
doubtless  living  at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  preferred  to  leave  it 


THE    STREET   OF    rOMBS  417 

to  his  heirs  to  add  the  memorial  inscription,  but  the  disaster 
interfered  with  the  fulfihnent  of  his  wishes.  It  was  probably- 
intended  to  bury  the  cinerary  urn  either  in  the  floor  of  the 
niche  or  in  the  ground  at  the  rear.  The  effect  of  the  double 
series  of  pilasters  at  the  corners,  placed  one  upon  the  other 
without  an  intervening  entablature,  and  of  the  fantastic  stucco 
decoration  of  the  gable,  is  not  unpleasing,  although  the  designs 
are  far  from  classical ;  the  tiles  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
modern.  The  inner  wall  is  painted  in  red  and  black  panels ; 
the  vaulted  ceiling,  from  which  the  stucco  has  now  fallen,  was 
moulded  to  represent  a  shell. 

Both  the  niche  and  the  tomb  of  the  Blue  Glass  Vase  seem  to 
have  belonged  to  the  adjoining  villa.  The  stucco  decoration  of 
the  villa  in  its  main  features  is  identical  with  that  of  the  niche ; 
and  the  plot  of  ground  behind  the  tombs  is  connected  by  a  gate- 
way with  a  garden  of  the  villa  ( 12  on  the  plan),  which  was  too 
richly  adorned  to  have  been  intended  for  the  use  of  the  occu- 
pants of  the  inn.  In  the  middle  of  the  garden  was  a  pavilion 
supported  by  four  mosaic  columns  (now  in  the  Naples  Museum), 
similar  to  that  in  the  garden  of  the  villa  of  Diomedes,  and  to 
others  belonging  to  city  houses.  A  mosaic  fountain  niche  was 
made  in  the  rear  wall  facing  the  entrance  from  the  street,  and 
in  two  corners  were  short  columns  on  which  were  placed  small 
figures,  —  on  one  a  boy  with  a  hare,  in  marble,  on  the  other  a 
frog  of  glazed  terra  cotta. 

Nevertheless,  the  garden  seems  to  possess  a  distinctly  sepul- 
chral character.  Besides  the  entrances  from  the  tombs  and 
from  the  street,  there  was  a  third,  which  led  into  a  court  of 
the  villa,  with  which  the  peristyle  and  living  rooms  were  con- 
nected by  a  passageway  ;  in  the  corner  of  the  court  nearest  the 
garden,  and  facing  the  entrance  from  the  street  (15),  was  an 
elaborate  domestic  shrine,  dedicated,  as  shown  by  the  symbolical 
decoration,  to  Apollo,  Bacchus,  Hercules,  and  Mercury.  The 
relation  of  the  garden  with  the  living  rooms  of  the  villa  was 
only  indirect ;  and  we  conclude  that  it  was  intended  for  gather- 
ings and  sacred  rites  in  honor  of  the  dead.  Relatives  could 
partake  of  the  sepulchral  banquet  under  the  pavilion. 

The  tombs  of  the  third  group,  as  may  be  seen  from  Plate  X, 


4i8 


POMPEII 


) 


form  a  stately  series.  The  prevailing  type  is  that  which  was  in 
vogue  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the  city  —  a  high  base, 
with  marble  steps  at  the  top  leading  up  to  a  massive  super- 
structure in  the  form  of  an  altar,  faced  with  marble.  The 
burial  plot  was  enclosed  by  a  low  wall.  In  the  base  of  the  tomb 
was  a  sepulchral  chamber,  entered  by  a  door  in  the  rear  or  at 
one  side ;  it  was  now  the  custom  for  relatives  to  enter  the  burial 
vault  when  they  wished  to  pour  libations  on  the  ashes. 

The  first  of  the  series  (i6  on  the  plan,  seen  in  Plate  X  next 
to  the  cypress)  was  unfinished  at  the  time  of  the  eruption. 
Part  of  the  marble  veneering  had  not  yet  been  added,  the  walls 
of  the  sepulchral  chamber  were  in  the  rough,  and  there  were 
no  urns  in  the  five  niches  designed  for  their  reception.  In  the 
burial  plot  surrounding  the  tomb,  however,  a  marble  bust 
stone  was  found  (Fig.  240)  with  the  inscription,  lunojii  TycJics 

Inline  Augustac  Vener\iae\, — 
'  To  the  Genius  of  Tyche,  slave 
of  JuHa  Augusta,  —  of  the  cult 
of  Venus.' 

The  reference  is  plainly  to  a 
female  slave  of  Livia,  the  wife 
of  Augustus ;  how  her  ashes 
came  to  be  deposited  here  it  is 
not  worth  while,  in  default  of 
information,  to  conjecture.  In 
sepulchral  inscriptions  of  women 
Innojii  sometimes  takes  the 
place  of  gciiio  in  men's  epitaphs. 
Tyche  was  seemingly  a  member 
of  a  sisterhood  for  the  worship  of  Venus,  to  which,  as  to  the 
organization  of  the  'Servants  of  Mercury  and  Maia,'  and  of  the 
'  Servants  of  Fortuna  Augusta,'  slaves  were  admitted. 

The  tomb  of  Umbricius  Scaurus  (17)  is  conspicuous  by  rea- 
son of  its  size  and  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  decoration. 
The  inscription  on  the  front  of  the  altar-shaped  superstructure 
gives  interesting  details  in  regard  to  the  man  the  memory  of 
whom  is  here  perpetuated:  A.  Uinbricio  A.  f.  Men.  Scauro,  II 
vir  I.    d. ;    Jiuic    deeuriones    locum    vionnm\^cnto\    et   HS    oc  00 


Fig.  240. 


■  Bust  Stone  of  Tyche,  slave  of 
Julia  Augusta. 


THE   STREET   OF   TOMBS  419 

///  fnncre  et  statiiaui  cqucstr\jin  in  f~\oiv  poiicndani  ccnsitcnnit. 
Scaiinis  pater  filio,  —  'To  the  memory  of  Aulus  Umbricius 
Scauriis  son  of  Aulus,  of  the  tribe  Menenia,  duumvir  with  ju- 
diciary authority.  The  city  council  voted  the  place  for  a  mon- 
ument to  this  man  and  two  thousand  sesterces  toward  the  cost 
of  the  funeral ;  they  voted  also  that  an  equestrian  statue  in  his 
honor  should  be  set  up  in  the  Forum.  Scaurus  the  father  to 
the  memory  of  his  son.' 

Why  these  honors  were  conferred  upon  Scaurus,  who  prob- 
ably became  a  duumvir  early  in  life  and  died  soon  after  his 
term  of  office,  is  not  clear.  The  upper  part  of  the  base  of  the 
tomb  in  front  was  adorned  with  stucco  reliefs  —  now  for  the 
most  part  gone  —  in  which  gladiatorial  combats  and  a  venatio 
were  depicted ;  but  a  painted  inscription  along  the  edge  of  one 
of  the  scenes  indicates  that  the  show  thus  commemorated  was 
given  by  another  man,  ^V.  Fist  ins  Anipliatus  ;  Mnnere  [yV.  Fis']ti 
Ampliati  die  siunuio.  Perhaps  the  last  two  words  mean  that 
*  on  the  last  day '  the  younger  Scaurus,  a  relative  or  friend  of 
Ampliatus,  shared  the  cost  of  the  exhibition  under  some  such 
arrangement  as  that  between  Lucretius  Valens  and  his  son 
(p.  222).  If  this  be  the  correct  explanation,  it  is  evident  that 
Scaurus  could  have  given  no  shows  in  the  Amphitheatre  during 
his  duumvirate,  else  the  father  would  have  taken  pains  to  men- 
tion the  fact  in  the  inscription.  His  term  of  office  may  have 
come  after  the  year  59,  when  such  exhibitions  were  prohibited  at 
Pompeii  for  ten  years  (p.  220). 

The  gladiatorial  scenes,  if  space  permitted,  would  merit  a 
detailed  presentation  —  they  are  so  full  of  human  interest. 
Two  gladiators  are  fighting  on  horseback,  the  rest  on  foot. 
The  vanquished  with  uplifted  thumbs  are  mutely  begging  for 
mercy.  The  plea  of  some  of  them  is  heeded  by  the  populace ; 
in  other  groups  we  see  the  victor  preparing  to  give  the  death 
thrust.  Beside  each  gladiator  was  painted  his  name,  school, 
and  number  of  previous  combats,  as  in  a  programme ;  and 
letters  were  added  to  give  the  result  of  this  fight.  One  com- 
batant, who  was  beaten  and  yet  by  the  vote  of  the  audience 
permitted  to  live,  died  on  the  sand  from  his  wounds.  We  see 
him  resting  on  one  knee,  faint  fromToss  of  blood ;  the  letter  M 


4  30  POMPEII 

beside  his  name,  for  missus,  is  followed  by  the  death  sign  O,  the 
first  letter  of  the  Greek  word  for  death,  6ANAT0S. 

The  animals  shown  in  the  venatio  are  mainly  wild  boars  and 
bears,  but  we  recognize  also  a  lion  and  a  bull.  Lions  were  doubt- 
bss  much  more  rarely  seen  in  such  exhibitions  at  Pompeii  than 
at  Rome. 

As  more  attention  came  to  be  given  to  the  outward  appear- 
ance of  tombs,  less  was  bestowed  upon  the  adornment  of  the 
sepulchral  chamber.  So  in  the  tomb  of  Scaurus  the  burial  vault 
is  low,  cramped,  and  wath  plain  white  walls.  A  massive  pillar, 
as  in  the  tomb  of  the  Istacidii,  supports  the  vaulted  ceiling.  It 
is  pierced  by  two  openings,  forming  four  niches,  two  on  each 
side.  Three  of  these,  when  the  tomb  was  opened,  were  closed 
by  panes  of  glass,  and  there  were  traces  of  a  curtain  that  hung 
over  the  one  opposite  the  entrance.  There  were  fourteen  other 
niches  in  the  walls  at  the  sides. 

No  name  is  associated  with  the  third  tomb  (i8  on  the  plan) 
which,  as  shown  by  Plate  X,  is  simply  a  large  cvlinder  of 
masonry,  the  top  of  which  probably  had  the  shape  of  a  trun- 
cated cone  ;  the  material  is  brick,  with  a  facing  of  white  stucco 
lined  off  to  give  the  appearance  of  blocks  of  marble.  The  base 
is  square  ;  the  enclosing  wall  is  adorned  with  miniature  towers. 
The  structure  illustrates  in  its  simplest  form  the  type  of  the 
massive  tomb,  or  mausoleum,  found  at  Rome  ;  we  are  at  once 
reminded  of  the  imposing  monument  of  Caecilia  Metella  on  the 
Appian  Way,  and  of  Hadrian's  Mausoleum  in  the  city. 

A  blank  tablet  w^as  placed  by  the  builder  on  the  front  of  the 
enclosing  wall  to  receive  an  inscription  after  his  death.  The 
heirs,  however,  preferred  to  put  the  memorial  on  the  tomb  itself, 
Avhere  the  place  of  an  inscription  is  plainly  seen,  the  slab  itself 
having  disappeared.  The  sepulchral  chamber  is  in  the  super- 
structure ;  it  was  decorated  with  simple  designs  in  the  fourth 
style  on  a  white  ground.  There  were  only  three  niches,  per- 
haps for  father,  mother,  and  child  ;  the  urns  were  let  into  the 
bottoms  of  the  niches,  as  often  in  the  Roman  columbaria. 

One  of  the  miniature  towers  on  the  enclosing  wall  is  orna- 
mented with  a  relief  presenting  a  singular  design ;  a  woman  in 
mourning  habit  is  laying  a  fillet  on  a  skeleton  reclining  on  a 


run  stri^kt  of  tombs 


421 


heap  of   stones  (Fig.   241).     The  scene  may  be  interpreted  as 
symbolizing  the  grief  of  a  mother  for  a  dead  son. 

There  is  only  a  simple  bust  stone  in  the  burial  lot  ( 19)  beyond 
the  round  monument.  Next  comes  the  beautiful  tomb  of  Cal- 
ventius  Quietus  (20),  which  may  be  seen  in  Plate  X,  as  well  as 
the  tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche  (22  ;  further  to  the  right).  Be- 
tween these  two  is  a  walled  enclosure  (21)  without  a  door,  in 
which  are  three  bust  stones.  The  largest  stone  bears  the  name 
N.  Istacidius  Helenus ;  in  front  »f  one  of  the  others  a  small  jar  was 
set  to  receive  offerings  for  the  dead.  On  the  front  of  the  enclos- 
ing wall  is  a  tablet  on  which  the  names  of  N.  Istacidius  Janua- 
rius  and  of  Mesonia  Satulla  appear  with 
that  of  Helenus  ;  they  were  all  freedmen 
of  the  Istacidii  (p.  412). 

The  monuments  of  Quietus  and  of 
Tyche  are  the  finest  examples  of  the 
altar  type  at  Pompeii.  Both  are  orna- 
mented in  good  taste,  but  the  carvings  vttni:, 
of  the  former  are  more  delicate,  while 
the  motives  of  the  latter  are  more  elab- 
orate. Quietus  was  a  man  of  some  prom- 
inence, as  we  see  from  the  epitaph  :  C. 
Calventio  Qnieto  Angnstali ;  Jiiiic  ob 
viniiificcnt\^iani\  dccnnoiuivi  dccrcto  ct  populi  consc\_ii\su  lusclhi 
honor  datus  est,  —  '  To  the  memory  of  Gains  Calventius  Quietus, 
member  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Augustus.  On  account  of  his 
generosity  the  honor  of  a  seat  of  double  width  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  vote  of  the  city  council  and  the  approval  of  the 
people.' 

At  the  Theatre  and  the  Amphitheatre,  Quietus  had  the  privi- 
lege of  sitting  on  a  bisellium,  as  if  he  were  a  member  of 
the  city  council.  Below  the  inscription  is  a  representation  of 
the  '  seat  of  double  width,'  shown  in  Fig.  242.  The  square  foot- 
stool at  the  middle  implies  that  the  seat  was  intended  for  a  single 
person.  The  ends  of  the  tomb  were  ornamented  with  finely 
carved  reliefs  of  the  civic  crown,  which  was  made  of  oak  leaves 
and  awarded  to  those  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  Roman  citizen 
(Fig.   243).      As  the  inscription  does  not  record  any  deed  of 


241. —  Relief,  symbolic  of 
grief  for  the  dead. 


18 


422 


POMPEII 


W  Zo 


valor,  it  may  be  that  the  crown  is  used  here  merely  as  a  decora- 
tive device. 

Though  the  monument  of  Quietus  was  built  in  the  last  years 
of  the  city,  when  such  structures  were  generally  provided  with 

sepulchral  chambers, 
it  has  no  burial  vault, 
and  the  enclosing  wall 
is  without  a  door.  It 
is  perhaps  a  cenotaph, 
a  monument  erected 
in  honor  of  a  man 
whose  remains  were 
interred  elsewhere ;  it 
is  also  possible  that 
Quietus  had  no  rela- 
tives who  wished  to 
have  an  accessible  se- 
pulchral chamber  in 
order  to  make  liba- 
tions to  his  ashes,  and 
that  for  this  reason 
the  monument  was 
made  solid,  the  urn 
being  buried  in  the  earth  underneath.  The  small  turrets  on  the 
enclosing  wall  were  adorned  with  reliefs;  among  them  Oedipus 
solving  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx,  and  Theseus  after  the  slaugh- 
ter of  the  Minotaur.  The  suggestion  is  obvious  :  he  who  is  com- 
memorated here  had  solved  the  riddle  of  existence,  had  found 
an  exit  from  the  labyrinth  of  life. 

Around  the  front  and  sides  of  the  tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche 
runs  a  border  of  acanthus  arabesques,  forming  panels  in  which 
reliefs  are  placed.  The  border  in  front  is  interrupted  at  the 
middle  of  the  upper  side  by  the  portrait  of  Tyche ;  the  lower 
half  of  the  panel  is  devoted  to  a  ceremonial  scene  in  which  offer- 
ings appear  to  be  made  to  the  dead,  while  in  the  upper  half, 
under  the  portrait,  we  read  the  inscription  :  Naevoleia  L.  lib- 
\_erta'\  TycJie  sibi  et  C.  Miinatio  Faiisto  A7ig\_ustali\  ct  pagano, 
cm  dectiriojics  consensu  popnli  biselliuni  ob  merita  eius  decreve- 


Fig.  242.  —  Front  of  the  tomb  of  Calveniius  Quietus, 
with  biselliuni. 


THE   STREET   OF   TOMBS 


423 


runt.      Hoc  moniuientiini  Naevolcia    TycJie  libertis  suis  libcrta- 

busq\jic^  L't  C.  Mnnati  Fausti  viva  fecit,  — '  Naevoleia  Tyche, 

freedwoman  of  Lucius   Naevoleius,  for  herself  and  for  Gaius 

Munatius   Faustus,   member   of  the  Brotherhood   of   Augustus 

and  suburban  official,  to  whom  on  account  of  his  distinguished 

services  the  city  council,  with  the  approval  of  the  people,  granted 

a  seat  of  double  wifjth.     This  monument  Naevoleia  Tyche  built  in 
"  W  2.2.  ''W'  2.0 

>!/  i^ 


Fig.  243.  —  End  of  the  tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche,  with  relief  of  a  ship  entering  port ; 
beyond,  end  of  the  tomb  of  Calventius  Quietus,  with  the  civic  crown. 


her  lifetime  also  for  the  freedmen  and  freedwomen  of  herself  and 
of  Gaius  Munatius  Faustus,'  who  was  seemingly  her  husband. 

The  bisellium  of  Faustus  is  shown  in  one  of  the  end  panels ; 
in  the  other  we  see  a  ship  sailing  into  port  (Fig.  243).  The  carv- 
ing of  the  relief  is  bold,  though  crude  ;  we  see  the  sailors  furUng 
the  sail,  as  the  vessel  glides  into  still  water.  The  scene  is  symbol- 
ical of  death,  —  the  entrance  of  the  soul  after  the  storms  of  life 
into  a  haven  of  rest.  The  thought  is  expressed  by  Cicero  with 
deep  feeling  in   his  essay  on  Old  Age  :   '  As  for  myself,  I  find 


424  POMPEII 

the  ripening  of  life  truly  agreeable  ;  the  nearer  I  come  to  the 
time  of  death,  the  more  I  feel  like  one  who  begins  to  see  land 
and  knows  that  sometime  he  will  enter  the  harbor  after  the  long 
voyage.' 

The  sepulchral  chamber  of  this  tomb  has  a  large  niche  oppo- 
site the  entrance ;  the  urn  standing  in  it  apparently  contained 
the  cinerary  remains  of  two  persons,  Tyche  and  Faustus.  Other 
urns  were  found  in  the  smaller  niches  in  the  walls  and  on  the 
bench  of  masonry  along  the  sides.  Three  were  of  glass,  pro- 
tected by  lead  cases ;  one  of  them  is  shown  in  Fig.  244.  They 
contained  ashes  and  fragments  of  bone,  with  remains  of  a  liquid 
mixture,  which  was  shown  by  chemical  analysis  to  have  consisted 
of  water,  wine,  and  oil.  Lamps  were  found  on 
f^\  the  bench,  one  for  each  urn,  and  there  were 

j^^^^^         others  in  a  corner ;   they  were  used  on  anni- 
^^^^^^^^B|    versary  days  to  light  the  chamber. 
y^^^^^^^        The  last  monument  consists  of  a  walled  en- 
\/  Z.Z  iM       ^    '  '1    closure,  with  a  table  and  couches  of  masonry 

«  =  j    like  those  often  found  in  the  gardens  of  pri- 

^^k  ^  vate  houses  (Fig.  245).     In  front  of  the  table 

^^^^^^^         is  a  small  round  altar  for  libations.     This  was 
"~"""^  a  place  for  banquets  in  honor  of  the  dead,  tri- 

urn  in  lead  case.       cUnium  fiiuebrc  ;  3.  tomb  designed  to  serve  the 
convenience  of  the  living,  like  the  niche  of  Cer- 
rinius  Restitutus  and  the  benches  of  Veius  and  Mamia.     The 
walls  were  painted  in  the  last  style. 

Over  the  entrance  in  front  we  read :  Cn.  Vibrio  Q.  f.  Fal.  Sa- 
turniuo  Callistns  lib.,  —  *  To  the  memory  of  Gnaeus  Vibrius  Sa- 
turninus  son  of  Quintus,  of  the  tribe  Falerna ;  erected  by  his 
freedman  Callistus.'  As  Saturninus  did  not  belong  to  the 
tribe  Alenenia,  he  was  very  likely  not  a  native  of  Pompeii. 
His  ashes  were  probably  placed  in  an  urn  and  buried  in  the 
earth  between  the  altar  and  the  entrance. 

There  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  series  of  tombs 
on  the  south  side  of  the  highway  is  continued  beyond  the  villa 
of  Diomedes ;  but  it  has  not  yet  been  found  possible  to  carry 
the  excavations  further  in  that  direction. 

The  tombs  of    the   fourth   group   present  no   new   tvpes    of 


THE   STREET   OF   TOMBS 


425 


design  or  construction.  Several  of  them  are  of  interest,  how- 
ever, on  account  of  peculiarities  of  arrangement.  At  the  time 
of  the  eruption  two  of  the  monuments  (33,  35)  were  in  process 
of  building" ;  it  is  impossible  to  tell  what  form  they  were  to  have. 
A  third  (36)  had  been  commenced  on  a  large  scale,  but  appar- 
ently the  money  of  the  heirs  gave  out,  and  little  pyramids  were 
set  up  at  the  corners  of  the  walled  enclosure,  the  urns  being 
buried  in  the  earth. 


VJZ3 


Fig.  245.  —  Sepulcliial  onclosLirc  with  tiiciuiiuin  tuncljr 


Two  of  the  monuments  were  erected  for  children  (40,  41). 
They  stand  near  together  on  the  high  ground  in  the  angle 
formed  by  the  Vesuvius  Road.  They  are  small  vaulted  niches, 
ornamented  with  reliefs  in  white  stucco,  most  of  which  has  fallen 
off.  The  urn  in  each  was  placed  in  the  earth  under  the  bottom 
of  the  niche,  with  a  small  pipe  tile  leading  to  the  surface, 
through  which  libations  could  be  poured  down  upon  it.  A 
tablet  is  set  in  the  sustaining  wall  at  the  side  of  the  street  below 
the  larger  niche  (41),  with  the  simple  inscription,  N.  Velasio 
Grato,  vix[^it]  ann.  XII,  —  '  To  the  memory  of  Numerius  Vela- 
sius  Gratus,  who  lived  twelve  years.'     The  inscription  belong- 


426  POMPEII 

ing  to  the  other  niche  was  even  more  simple,  giving  no  first 
name  :  Salvius  pner  vixit  annis  J^I,  —  '  The  boy  Salvius  Hved  six 
years.' 

One  tomb  (34)  is  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  door.  This 
has  the  appearance  of  a  double  door,  but  it  is  made  of  a  single 
slab  of  marble,  and  swings,  like  an  ordinary  Roman  door,  by 
means  of  pivots  which  are  fitted  into  sockets  in  the  threshold 
and  lintel.  It  was  also  provided  with  a  lock.  The  exterior 
of  the  tomb  was  unfinished ;  the  reticulate  masonry  still  lacked 
its  facing  of  more  costly  material.  The  sepulchral  chamber, 
however,  contained  several  cinerary  urns;  one  of  them,  of 
alabaster,  was  in  a  large  niche  facing  the  entrance,  and  a  gold 
seal  ring,  with  the  figure  of  a  deer  in  an  intaglio,  was  found 
in  it  among  the  ashes  and  fragments  of  bone.  There  were 
also  several  lamps,  a  small  altar  of  terra  cotta,  and  a  few  glass 
perfume  vials.  Two  amphorae,  of  the  sort  used  for  wine,  stood 
against  the  sides  of  the  chamber  ;  such  were  sometimes  utilized 
as  repositories  for  ashes. 

One  of  the  volutes  of  the  well  preserved  limestone  tomb  of 
M.  Alleius  Luccius  Libella  {'^y)  is  seen  in  Plate  X.  The  monu- 
ment has  the  shape  of  an  altar,  and  is  apparently  solid.  It  was 
erected  by  the  widow,  Alleia  Decimilla,  priestess  of  Ceres,  in 
memory  of  her  husband,  who  was  duumvir  in  26  a.d.,  and  of 
a  son  of  the  same  name,  who  was  a  member  of  the  city  council 
and  died  in  his  eighteenth  year.  The  burial  plot  was  given  by 
the  city.  As  no  opening  was  left  in  the  monument,  Decimilla 
evidently  planned  to  have  her  ashes  deposited  in  another  tomb, 
perhaps  that  of  her  father's  family. 

The  remaining  four  tombs  are  of  the  same  type  ;  the  idea  is 
that  of  a  temple,  the  columnar  construction  being  suggested 
not  by  projecting  half-columns,  as  in  the  tomb  of  the  Istacidii, 
but  by  more  or  less  prominent  pilasters  at  the  corners  and  on 
the  sides.  Two  of  the  tombs  (38  and  39)  stand  where  the 
tongue  of  land  between  the  highway  and  the  Vesuvius  Road 
begins  to  descend  to  the  level  of  the  pavement. 

The  remains  of  the  tomb  of  Ceius  Labeo  (38)  are  shown  in 
Plate  X  (in  the  foreground,  at  the  left).  The  appearance  of 
this  monument  was  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Istacidii;  there 


THE    STREET   OF   TOMBS  427 

was  a  second  story,  the  roof  of  which  was  supported  entirely  by 
columns ;  between  these,  statues  of  members  of  the  family  were 
placed,  of  both  men  and  women,  some  of  marble,  others  of  tufa 
coated  with  stucco.  The  base  was  ornamented  with  stucco 
reliefs,  which  have  almost  entirely  disappeared ;  above,  in  front, 
were  two  portrait  medallions. 

The  large  sepulchral  chamber  can  be  seen  in  the  plate.  The 
floor  was  more  than  six  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
A  vaulted  niche  in  the  rear  wall  was  connected  with  the  outside 
by  means  of  a  small  opening  at  the  top,  through  which  libations 
could  be  poured  or  offerings  dropped  upon  the  urn  below.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  monument  was  found  the  inscription  :  L.  Ceio 
L.  f.  Men.  Labeoni  itcr\_nvi\  d.  v.  i.  d.  quinq\jtcnnali^  Meno- 
macJiHs  l\jbcrtHS^,  — '  To  the  memory  of  Lucius  Ceius  Labeo  son 
of  Lucius,  of  the  tribe  Menenia,  twice  duumvir  with  judiciary 
authority,  also  quinquennial  duumvir ;  erected  by  his  freedman, 
Menomachus.' 

There  were  bust  stones  in  the  plot  belonging  to  this  monu- 
ment, and  also  about  the  adjoining  tomb  (39);  the  names  of 
those  whose  ashes  were  deposited  under  the  stones,  in  part,  at 
least,  seem  to  have  been  painted  upon  the  base  of  Labeo's  tomb, 
but  they  were  illegible  at  the  time  of  excavation.  The  adjoin- 
ing tomb  (39)  is  without  a  name,  but  was  built  after  that  erected 
in  honor  of  Labeo. 

The  tombs  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  group  (42,  43)  belong  to 
one  household.  In  the  sustaining  wall  along  the  highway  a 
sepulchral  tablet  of  tufa  is  seen  with  the  inscription :  Arriae  M. 
f.  Diojiicdes  I\ibcrtus'\  sibi  sitis,  —  '  Uiomedes,  a  freedman,  for 
Arria,  daughter  of  Marcus  Arrius,  for  himself  and  for  his 
family.'  On  the  elevation  directly  above  is  his  tomb,  the  end 
of  which  is  seen  in  Plate  X  (in  the  foreground).  It  bears  the 
inscription  :  M.  Arriiis  J.  I.  Diomcdes  sibi  snis  memoriae,  magis- 
t^^'  p(ig\i^  Aiio\jisti'\  Fclic\is~\  suburb\_ani^,  —  'Marcus  Arrius 
Diomedes,  freedman  of  Arria,  magistrate  of  the  suburb  Pagus 
Augustus  FeHx,  in  memory  of  himself  and  his  family.' 

The  abbreviation  3.  1.  takes  the  place  of  Gaiae  libertiis,  '  freed- 
man of  Gaia,'  the  letter  C,  which  stands  for  Gains,  being  re- 
versed ;    Gaia  is  used,  as  in  legal   formulas,  to  show  that  the 


428  POMPEII 

person  referred  to  is  a  woman.  The  slave  Diomedes,  after  re- 
ceiving his  freedom,  was  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  family  name, 
and  was  known  as  Marcus  Arrius  Diomedes.  His  mistress,  as 
Roman  ladies  generally,  was  called  not  by  a  first  name,  but  by 
the  feminine  form  of  the  family  name,  Arria,  which  was  as 
plainly  suggested  to  a  Roman  reading  the  name  Arrius  followed 
by  the  symbol  as  if  it  had  been  written  in  full. 

On  the  front  of  the  tomb  we  observe  in  stucco  relief  two 
bundles  of  rods,  fasces,  with  axes,  having  reference  to  the  ol^cial 
position  of  Diomedes  as  a  magistrate  of  a  suburb.  The  axes 
are  quite  out  of  place.  Suburban  officers  did  not  have  the 
'  power  of  life  and  death  ' ;  the  lictors  of  such  magistrates  carried 
bundles  of  rods  without  axes.  The  vain  display  of  authority 
reminds  one  of  the  pompous  petty  official  held  up  to  ridicule 
by  Horace  in  his  Journey  to  Brundisium  ;  it  suggests  also  the 
rods  and  axes  painted  on  the  posts  at  the  entrance  of  the  dining 
room  of  Trimalchio,  in  Petronius's  novel.  The  tomb  was  con- 
structed without  a  burial  vault,  but  there  were  two  bust  stones 
near  by  with  names  of  freedmen  of  Diomedes. 

The  monument  to  Arria  {43)  lies  further  back;  it  fronts  on 
the  Vesuvius  Road.  Diomedes  found  a  way  to  reconcile  happily 
his  own  love  of  display  with  his  duty  to  his  former  mistress ;  he 
built  a  larger  monument  for  her,  but  chose  for  his  own  the  more 
conspicuous  position.  The  small  sepulchral  chamber  of  Arria's 
tomb  contained  nothing  of  interest  and  is  now  walled  up. 


CHAPTER    LI 

BURIAL    PLACES   NEAR    THE   NO  LA,   STAB  I  AN,   AND 
NO  CERA    GATES 

No  part  of  the  highway  leading  from  the  Nola  Gate  has  yet 
been  excavated.  In  the  year  1854,  however,  excavations  were 
made  for  a  short  distance  along  the  city  wall  near  this  gate,  and 
thirty-six  cinerary  urns  were  found  buried  in  the  earth.  In  or 
near  them  were  perfume  vials  of  terra  cotta  with  a  few  of  glass. 
Here  in  the  pomerium,  the  strip  of  land  along  the  outside  of  the 
walls,  which  was  left  vacant  for  religious  as  well  as  practical 
reasons,  the  poor  were  permitted  to  bury  the  ashes  of  their  dead 
without  cost.  In  some  cases  the  place  of  the  urn  was  indicated 
by  a  bust  stone ;  often  the  spot  was  kept  in  memory  merely  by 
cutting  upon  the  outside  of  the  city  wall  the  name  of  the  person 
whose  ashes  rested  here. 

There  was  another  cemetery  of  the  poor  a  short  distance 
southwest  of  the  Amphitheatre,  south  of  the  modern  highway. 
It  lay  along  a  road  which  branched  off  from  the  highway  lead- 
ing- to  Stabiae  and  ran  east  in  the  direction  of  Nocera.     Sepul- 

©  .    r — — ^~~-\ 

chral  remains  were  found  here  in  1755-57,  and  again  m (1893-94, 

when  further  explorations  were  made.  They  consist  of  cinerary 
urns,  buried  in  the  earth,  with  small  glass  perfume  vials  in  or 
near  them,  and  a  bust  stone  to  mark  the  spot.  A  few  of  the 
stones  are  of  marble  and  bear  a  name ;  the  great  majority  are 
roughly  carved  out  of  blocks  of  lava,  and  if  a  name  was  painted 
on  the  front  it  has  disappeared. 

<-Of  special  significance,  in  connection  with  these  burial  places, 
^^^•^is  the  arrangement  for  making  offerings  to  the  dead.     In  order    L^^^y^'^-^ 
^.  a.    '   that  libations  might  be  poured  directly  upon  the  cinerary  urns,     ^^:*^   ^y^^ 
^^[^^(^^  these  were  connected  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  means        -^-^^  J 
C*.?-a^  of  tubes.     In  one  instance  a  lead  pipe  ran  from  above  into  an 
^^^1*^  opening  made  for  it  in  the  top  of  the  lead  case  inclosing  an  urn. 


430  POMPEII 

More  often  the  connection  was  made  by  means  of  round  tiles; 

in  the  case  of  one  urn,  three  tiles  were  joined  together,  making  a 

tube  five  feet  long.     The  upper  end  of  the  libation  tube  did  not 

project  from  the  ground,  but  was  placed  just  below  the  surface 

and  covered  with  a  flat  stone ;  over  this  was  a  thin  layer  of 

earth,  which  the  relatives  would  remove  on  the  feast  days  of  the 

dead.     Pagan  antiquity  was  never  able  to  dissociate  the  spirit  of 

the  dead  from  the  place  of  interment ;  the  worship  of  ancestors 

was  in  no  small  degree  the  product  of  local  associations. 

^<c -oC-c-*^         4=-  In  the  vicinity  of  these  remains  is  a  sepulchral  monument  of 

K '=f-X,^K/^<^  "^^^^tnodest  dimensions,  which,  as  we  learn  from  the  tablet  over  the 

^  ^  t*"  \*"        entrance,  was  erected  by  Marcus  Peta^ius  Dasius  in  memory  of 

V*"^^^^  '^^^^Lhis   two  sons,   Severus  and   Communis,   and  of    a   freedwoman 

•C^     ;  -  K/      \named  Vitalis.      There  was  no  floor  in  the  burial  chamber; 

■>vX  >ri^i-*AJrihe  urns  were  placed  in  the  earth  and  marked  by  bust  stones, 

A/vi-c^t^J^-'M.-.A^mong   which   was  one   set  up    for    Dasius    himself,  with  the 

initials  M.  P.  D. 

The  Stabian  Road  has  been  excavated  for  but  a  short  distance 
near  the  gate.  The  only  monuments  completely  cleared  are  two 
large,  semicircular  benches,  like  those  of  Veins  and  Mamia 
(p.  409).  At  the  rear  of  each  is  a  small  sepulchral  enclosure  in 
which  the  urns  were  buried.  The  memorial  tablet  belonging 
to  the  monument  nearest  the  gate  has  disappeared,  but  two 
boundary  stones  at  the  corners  of  the  lot  bear  the  inscription : 
M.  Tullio  M.  f.  ex  d\ccHrioniiv{\  d\ecreto\,  —  'To  Marcus  Tullius 
son  of  Marcus,  in  accordance  with  a  vote  of  the  city  council.' 
The  Tullius  named  was  perhaps  the  builder  of  the  temple  of 
Fortuna  Augusta  (p.  132). 

The  inscription  of  the  second  bench,  like  that  of  Mamia,  is 
cut  in  large  letters  on  the  back  of  the  seat:  j\I.  Alicia  O.  f. 
Men.  Minio,  II  v.  i.  d.;  loeiis  sepnltnrac  piiblicc  datiis  ex  d.  d., — 
*To  the  memory  of  Marcus  AUeius  Minius  son  of  Marcus,  of 
the  tribe  Menenia,  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority.  The  place 
of  burial  was  given  in  the  name  of  the  city  by  vote  of  the  munic- 
ipal council.' 

A  third  bench,  close  to  the  second,  lies  under  a  modern  house 
and  has  not  been  uncovered.  Further  from  the  gate  a  rectan- 
gular seat,  probably  belonging  to  the  same  series  of  monurnents. 


BURIAL   PLACES  431 

was  discovered  in  iS.^^  it  was  built  in  memory  of  a  certain 
Clovatius,  duumvir,  as  shown  by  a  fragment  of  an  inscription 
that  came  to  hght  at  the  same  time.  From  still  another 
tomb  are  reliefs  with  gladiatorial  combats,  now  in  the  Naples 
Museum. 

With  the  exception  of  those  near  the  Herculaneum  Gate,  the 
most  important  tombs  yet  discovered  at  Pompeii  are  in  a  group 
beyond  the  Amphitheatre,  excavat^in  1886-87.  They  are  six 
in  number,  and  lie  close  together  on  both  sides  of  a  road  which 
ran  east  from  the  Nocera  Gate,  bending  slightly  to  the  north 
(Fig.  246).  This  road  was  not  in  use  in  the  last  years  of  the 
city ;  the  stones  of  the  pavement  and  sidewalk  had  been  re- 
moved. The  monuments,  however,  were  large  and  stately, 
erected  by  people  of  means,  and  the  ruins  are  characteristic  and 
impressive.  The  tombs  were  built  of  common  materials,  stucco 
being  used  on  exposed  surfaces  instead  of  marble.  The  sim- 
plicity of  construction,  and  the  shapes  of  the  letters  in  the  elec- 
tion notices  and  other  inscriptions  painted  on  them,  suggest  a 
relatively  early  date,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  age  of  the  coins 
found  in  the  urns ;  the 
monuments  belong  to  the 
early  decades  of  the  Em- 
pire. 
^'^  The  first  tomb  at  the 
right  (No.  I  on  the  plan) 
was  built  in  the  form  of 
a  commemorative  arch, 
with  pilasters  at  the  cor- 
ners. Above  was  a  low 
cylinder  surmounted  by 
a  truncated  cone,  on  which 
stood  a  terminal  member 
in  the  shape  of  a  pine  cone, 
found  near  by.  The  cine- 
rary urn  was  buried  in  the 
earth  below  an  opening  in 


Fit 


i/Q.n* 


,  246. —  Plan  of  the  tombs  east  of  the  Amphi- 
theatre. 


the  floor  of  the  passage  under  the  arch  (shown  in  the  plan), 
name  appears  in  connection  with  this  monument. 


No 


432 


POMPEII 


Another  monument  of  the  arch  type,  that  of  Mancius  Diog- 
enes, is  seen  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street  (5  ;  Fig.  248). 
The  structure  is  shallow,  the  vaulted  opening  low.  On  the  top 
of  the  arch  were  three  niches,  in  which  stood  three  travertine 
statues;  two  of  these,  both  of  women,  have  been  preserved, 
and  are  of  indifferent  workmanship.  A  marble  tablet  was 
placed  in  front,  over  the  vault,  with  the  inscription,  P.  JSIancio 
P.  I\ibcrto\  Dioo;cni  ex  testamcnto  arbitratii  Manciac  P.  l\ibertac\ 


Fig.  247.  —  View  of  two  tombs  east  of  the  Amphitheatre. 
That  at  the  left  is  Xo.  3  on  the  plan  ;  the  next  is  Xo.  4. 


Dorinis,  —  'To  the  memory  of  Publius  Mancius  Diogenes,  freed- 
man  of  Publius  Mancius  ;  (the  monument  was  erected)  in  accord- 
ance with  the  terms  of  his  will,  under  the  direction  of  Mancia 
Doris,  freedwoman  of  Publius  Mancius.' 

There  is  a  curious  ambiguity  in  this  inscription ;  we  cannot 
tell  whether  Doris,  seemingly  the  wife  of  Diogenes,  was  manu- 
mitted by  the  Publius  Mancius  who  gave  him  his  freedom,  or 
by  Diogenes  himself  after  he  had  gained  his  freedom  and 
was  entitled  to  use  the  name  Publius  Mancius.  Four  bust 
stones    stood    in    front    of    the    tomb    and    two    at    the    rear, 


BURIAL    PLACES  433 

arranged  as  indicated  on  the  plan;  those  in  front  are  seen  in 
our  illustration. 

The  tomb  at  the  left  of  that  just  described  (4 ;  Fig.  247)  is  of 
interest  as  showing  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  blend  the  arch 
type  with  that  of  the  temple.  A  passage  roofed  with  a  flat 
vault  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  first  story.  The  second 
story  had  the  appearance  of  a  diminutive  temple  with  four 
Corinthian  columns  in  front.  The  niche  representing  the  cella 
was  of  the  full  width  of  the  tomb,  and  occupied  two  thirds  of 
the  depth ;  the  other  third  was  given  to  the  portico.  Four 
statues  of  tufa  coated  with  stucco  that  were  found  here  proba- 
bly stood  under  the  portico  or  in  the  intercolumniations,  where 
they  would  best  be  seen  from  below  ;  three  were  statues  of  men, 
the  fourth  of  a  woman. 

The  arrangement  of  the  five  bust  stones  in  the  vaulted  pas- 
sage is  indicated  on  the  plan.  The  three  nearest  the  street 
entrance  bear  the  name  of  a  freedman,  L.  Caeshis  L.  I.  Logus, 
—  'Lucius  Caesius  Logus,  freedman  of  Lucius  Caesius,'  and  of 
Titia  Vesbina  and  Titia  Optata,  both  evidently  freedwomen 
manumitted  by  a  lady  named  Titia.  We  are  probably  safe  in 
assuming  that  the  two  inmost  stones,  without  names,  are  those 
of  Caesius  and  Titia,  husband  and  wife,  who  gave  Logus, 
Vesbina,  and  Optata  their  freedom,  and  built  the  monument. 
It  w^as  not  necessary  to  place  the  names  of  the  builders  upon 
the  commemorative  stones,  because  they  were  doubtless  given 
in  the  memorial  tablet  in  front,  which  has  disappeared.  Coins 
of  Augustus  and  Tiberius  were  found  in  the  urns. 

One  tomb  (2)  has  the  form  of  a  niche,  resembling  those  of  •>»  t^l 
the  two  children  near  the  end  of  the  Street  of  Tombs  (p.  425), 
but  larger  and  more  costly  than  they.  The  corners  are  em- 
bellished with  three-quarter  columns,  which  have  Doric  flutings 
and  composite  capitals.  On  the  walls  at  the  entrance  we  see, 
modelled  in  stucco,  doorposts  with  double  doors  swung  back. 
Two  marble  bust  stones,  the  places  of  which  are  indicated  on 
the  plan,  show  where  the  urns  of  the  two  most  important  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  Apuleius  and  his  wife  Veia,  were  buried  ; 
their  names  doubtless  appeared  in  an  inscription  on  the  front 
of   the    monument.     In   one  of  the  urns  was  found  a  coin  of 


434 


POMPEII 


Tiberius  of  the  year  lO  a.d.  The  other  was  enclosed  in  a  lead 
case,  and  a  lead  libation  tube  was  extended  from  the  ashes 
through  both  covers  to  the  surface. 

The  names  of  Apuleius  and  Veia  are  obtained  from  two  other 
bust  stones,  in  front  of  the  niche.  One  reads,  Festae  Apiclei 
f\iliae\  vix^iP^  a7m[^os~\  XVII,  —  'To  the  memory  of  Festa, 
daughter  of  Apuleius,  who  lived  seventeen  years.'     The  other 


Fig.  248.  —  Two  other  tombs  east  of  the  Amphitheatre. 
Nos.  5,  6  on  the  plan. 

has  simply  \_C^0Jiviva  Vciacs  vix  an.  XX,  — '  Conviva,  slave  of 
Veia,  lived  twenty  years.'  An  as  of  the  time  of  the  Republic 
was  found  in  the  urn  of  Conviva ;  and  a  square  tile,  the  upper 
end  of  which  was  closed  by  a  piece  of  marble,  served  as  a  liba- 
tion tube  for  the  urn  of  Festa. 

The  two  remaining  tombs  are  of  the  temple  type,  one  (3  ; 
Fig.  247)  having  pilasters  at  the  corners,  the  other  half-columns 
at  the  corners  and  on  the  sides  (6).  The  first  has  a  vaulted 
sepulchral  chamber,  entered  from  the  rear.  On  the  inside  of 
the  wall  next  the  street  are  three  low  niches,  the  top  of  which 
is   nearly   on    a    level  with  the  sidewalk ;    each   of  them  con- 


BURIAL    PLACES 


435 


tainecl  an  urn.  Directly  over  the  inner  niches,  in  the  outside 
of  the  wall  and  opening  toward  the  street,  are  three  other 
niches,  shown  in  the  illustration,  in  the  bottom  of  which  were 
libation  tubes  leading  to  the  urns  below.  Relatives  could 
thus  pour  their  offerings  of  wine  or  oil  upon  the  urns  with- 
out entering-  the  sepulchral  chamber.  Lava  bust  stones  were 
placed  against  the  back  of  the  outer  niches.  The  hair  on 
one  of  them  is  treated  in  a  manner  to  indicate  that  a  woman 
is  represented.  The  entrance  of  the  tomb  was  closed  by  a 
large  block  of  lava.  On  account  of  the  arrangement  for  offer- 
ing libations  from  the  outside,  it  was  not  necessary  to  make 
the  burial  vault  easy  of  access. 

The  entrance  to  the  other  tomb  (6  ;  Fig.  248)  was  in  front, 
and  closed  by  a  door  of  limestone.  It  led,  not  to  a  sepulchral 
chamber,  but  to  a  stairway  by  which  one  ascended  to  the  second 
story.  Here  statues  were  placed,  but  the  exact  form  of  the 
upper  part  cannot  be  determined.  The  finding  of  five  tufa 
capitals  suggests  that  the  second  story  may  have  been  a  colum- 
nar structure,  like  that  of  the  tomb  of  the  Istacidii ;  when  the 
excavations  are  carried  further  east  enough  other  fragments 
will  perhaps  be  found  to  make  a  complete  restoration  possible. 
One  of  the  statues  is  of  a  man  holding  a  roll  of  papyrus  in  his 
hand,  wdth  a  round  manuscript  case,  scrmimn,  at  his  feet. 

Among  the  inscriptions  painted  on  these  tombs  were  two, 
relating  to  gladiatorial  combats,  which  have  already  been  men- 
tioned (p.  221).  One  of  the  election  notices,  oddly  enough, 
refers  to  a  candidate  for  an  office  in  Nuceria  :  L.  Alunatiiim 
Cacscniiniun  Niiceriae  II  vir.  qiiinq.  v.  b.  o.  v.  f.  (for  dnnnivirinn 
qtiinqucntialein,  vinim  bonuin,  oro  vos,  facitc),  —  '  Make  Lucius 
Caeserninus  quinquennial  duumvir  of  Nuceria,  I  beg  of  you, 
he's  a  good  man.'  As  long  as  the  relations  of  the  Pompeians 
and  Nucerians  were  friendly,  the  highway  between  the  two 
towns  was  doubtless  much  travelled  by  the  citizens  of  both 
places. 

If  the  visitor  pauses  to  think  of  the  religious  feeling  which 
the  ancients  manifested  generally  in  relation  to  their  burial 
places,  it  gives  somewhat  of  a  shock  to  see  notices  even  of  a 
semi-public  character  painted  in  bright  red  letters  upon  tombs. 


436  POMPEII 

All  such  inscriptions,  however,  are  surpassed  in  ludicrous  incon- 
gruity with  the  purpose  of  the  monument  by  the  following 
advertisement  regarding  a  stray  horse  :  Equa  siqnci  aberavit 
cum  senmncis  Jionerata  a.  d.  VII  Kal.  Scptcmbrcs  (corrected  into 
Dccembres),  convcnito  Q.  Dcciu[iii\  Q.  I.  Hilan/m  .  .  .  L.  I.  .  .  . 
cJiioncm,  citra  ponton  Sarni fnndo  Jilainiajio,  — '  If  anybody  lost 
a  mare  with  a  small  pack-saddle,  November  25,  let  him  come  and 
see  Ouintus  Decius  Hilarus,  freedman  of  Ouintus  Decius,  or  .  .  . 
(the  name  is  illegible),  freedman  of  Lucius,  on  the  estate  of  the 
Mamii,  this  side  of  the  bridge  over  the  Sarno.'  The  two  f reed- 
men  were  very  likely  in  partnership,  working  a  farm  belonging 
to  the  family,  one  representative  of  which  we  have  already  met, 
Mamia  the  priestess  (p.  410). 

A  more  serious  desecration  of  burial  places,  after  offerings  to 
the  dead  ceased  to  be  made  by  relatives,  or  a  family  became 
extinct,  was  probably  not  uncommon.  Different  families  had 
different  gods,  and  those  of  one  household  were  quite  inde- 
pendent of  those  of  another.  Ordinarily  a  man  had  no  reason 
to  fear  or  respect  the  gods  of  his  neighbor ;  notwithstanding 
the  associations  of  worship  connected  with  tombs,  the  general 
feeling  toward  them  was  very  different  from  that  manifested 
toward  temples,  where  local  divinities  or  the  great  gods  were 
worshipped.  The  most  stringent  regulations  of  the  emperors 
could  not  prevent  the  ransacking  of  the  tombs  about  Rome  for 
objects  of  value,  and  the  removal  of  their  materials  of  construc- 
tion for  building  purposes.  The  superstructure  of  two  of  the 
monuments  near  the  Herculaneum  Gate  had  disappeared  appar- 
ently before  the  destruction  of  the  city,  and  of  the  tomb  of 
Porcius  only  the  core  remained. 


PART   V 

POMPEIAN     ART 
CHAPTER    LII 

ARCHITECTURE 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  principal  buildings  of  Pompeii 
have  been  described,  and  reference  has  been  made  to  many 
works  of  art.  We  shall  now  offer  a  few  observations  of  a  more 
general  nature  in  regard  to  the  remains  of  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting. 

The  different  periods  in  the  architectural  history  of  the  city 
have  been  defined  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  most  significant 
of  these,  from  every  point  of  view,  is  that  which  we  have  called 
the  Tufa  Period,  which  corresponds  roughly  with  the  second 
century  B.C.  Its  importance  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
records  for  us  a  phase  of  architectural  development,  a  style,  of 
which  only  slight  traces  are  found  elsewhere,  —  in  the  East.  It 
is  the  last  offshoot  of  untrammelled  Hellenistic  art  in  the  field  of 
construction ;  the  architecture  of  the  following  period  was  still 
derived  from  Hellenistic  sources,  but  was  dominated  by  Roman 
conceptions,  and  received  from  Rome  the  impulse  that  deter- 
mined the  direction  of  its  development.  The  remains  of  the 
Tufa  Period  at  Pompeii  furnish  materials  for  a  missing  chapter 
in  the  history  of  architecture. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  stone  preferred  in  this  period  for  all 
purposes  was  the  gray  tufa.  Where  used  for  columns,  pilasters, 
and  entablatures,  it  was  covered  with  stucco ;  in  plain  walls  it 
appeared  in  its  natural  color.  Unfortunately,  the  covering  of 
stucco  is  preserved  in  only  a  few  cases  ;  the  best  example  is  pre- 
sented by  an  Ionic  capital  in  the  first  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the 
Faun.    The  stucco  was  generally  white,  but  color  was  sometimes 

437 


438  POMPEII 

employed,  as  in  the  Corinthian  columns  and  pilasters  of  the 
exedra  in  the  same  house,  which  are  painted  a  deep  wine  red. 

No  other  period  of  Pompeian  art  shows  in  an  equal  degree 
the  impress  of  a  single  characteristic  and  self-consistent  style, 
alike  in  public  buildings,  temples,  and  private  houses,  in  the 
interior  decoration  as  well  as  in  the  treatment  of  exteriors. 
The  wall  decoration  of  the  first  style  is  simply  the  adaptation 
of  tufa  construction  to  decorative  use.  The  motives  are  identi- 
cal. The  forms  are  the  same,  but  these  naturally  appear  in  a 
freer  handling  upon  interior  walls,  the  effect  being  heightened 
by  the  use  or  imitation  of  slabs  of  marble  of  various  colors. 

This  style  throughout  gives  the  impression  of  roominess  and 
largeness.  It  is  monumental,  especially  when  viewed  in  con- 
trast with  the  later  architecture  of  Pompeii.  No  building  erected 
after  the  city  became  a  Roman  colony  can  be  compared,  for 
ample  dimensions  and  spatial  effects,  with  the  Basilica.  In  the 
same  class  are  the  temples  of  Jupiter  and  Apollo,  with  the  im- 
pressive two-storied  colonnades  enclosing  the  areas  on  which 
they  stand ;  the  contrast  with  the  later  temples,  as  those  of 
Fortuna  Augusta  and  Vespasian,  is  striking.  All  the  more  im- 
portant houses  of  this  period  are  monumental  in  design  and  pro- 
portions, with  imposing  entrances,  large  and  lofty  atriums,  and 
high  doors  opening  upon  the  atrium ;  the  shops  in  front  also 
were  high,  and  in  two  stories. 

In  point  of  detail,  the  architecture  of  the  Tufa  Period  reveals 
less  of  strength  and  symmetry  than  its  stately  proportions  and 
modest  material  would  lead  us  to  expect.  The  ornamentation 
is  a  debased  descendant  of  the  Greek.  It  is  characterized  by 
superficial  elegance,  together  with  an  apparent  striving  after 
simplicity  and  an  ill-concealed  poverty  of  form  and  color. 
Though  the  ornamental  forms  still  manifest  fine  Greek  feeling, 
they  lack  delicacy  of  modelling  and  vigor  of  expression.  They 
are  taken  from  Greek  religious  architecture,  but  all  appreciation 
of  the  three  orders  as  distinct  types,  each  suited  for  a  different 
environment,  has  disappeared.  In  consequence,  we  often  find 
a  mi.xture  of  the  orders,  a  blending  of  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corin- 
thian elements ;  and  still  more  frequently  do  we  meet  with  a 
marked  departure  from  the  original  proportions. 


ARCHITF.CTURE 


439 


249. —  Four-faced  Ionic  capital. 
Forum  Triangulare. 


Portico  of  the 


Thus  in  the  court  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  and  in  the  first 
peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Faun  we  see  Ionic  columns  sup- 
porting a  Doric  entablature  ;  in  the  house  of  the  Black  Wall, 
Doric  columns  with  an  Ionic  entablature.  The  Doric  architrave, 
contrary  to  rule,  ap- 
pears divided  into  two 
stripes,  not  only  in  the 
colonnade  of  the  Fo- 
rum, where  the  stripes 
represent  a  difference 
of  material,  but  also  in 
the  house  of  the  Faun, 
where  the  architrave  is 
represented  as  com- 
posed of  single  blocks 
reaching  from  column 
to  column  (p.  51).  In 
the  Palaestra  (p.  165),  and  in  many  private  houses,  the  Doric 
column  was  lengthened,  in  a  way  quite  out  of  harmony  with  the 
original  conception,  in  order  to  make  it  conform  to  the  prevail- 
ing desire  for  height  and  slender  proportions.  The  shaft  no- 
where appears  with  the  pronounced  entasis  and  strong  diminu- 
tion characteristic  of  the  type,  and  the  capital  has  lost  the  breadth 
and  graceful  outline  of  the  Greek  Doric. 

The  Ionic  columns  in  the  cella  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  (p. 
65)  are  of  the  Greek  type,  with  volutes  on  two  sides  ;  elsewhere 
we  find  only  the  so-called  Roman  Ionic, 
with  four  volutes,  a  type  that  appears  in 
several  well  defined  and  pleasing  exam- 
ples. One  of  these,  a  capital  from  the 
portico  at  the  entrance  of  the  Forum 
Triangulare,  is  shown  in  Fig.  249.  The 
deep  incisions  of  the  egg-and-dart  pat- 
tern, which  give  the  egg  almost  the 
appearance  of  a  little  ball,  is  character- 
istic ;  it  is  found  only  at  Pompeii,  and  there  not  after  the  Tufa 
Period.  A  still  freer  handling  of  the  Ionic  is  seen  in  the  capital 
of  a  pilaster  in  the  casa  del  duca  d'Aumale  (Fig.  250). 


Fig.  250.  —  Capital   of  pilaster 
Casa  del  duca  d'Aumale. 


440 


POMPKII 


The  Corinthian  capital  appears  in  the  usual  forms,  but  the 
projecting  parts  are  shallow,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  resisting 
qualities  in  the  stone.  The  best  examples  are  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  and  pilasters  of  the  exedra  in  the  house  of  the  Faun. 
The  workmanship  here  is  fine,  the  realistic  treatment  of  the 
acanthus  leaves  being  especially  noteworthy.  An  interesting 
series  of  variations  from  the  normal  type  is  seen  in  the  capitals 
of  the  pilasters  at  house  entrances ;  we  have  already  met  with 
a  striking  example  of  this  series,  ornamented  with  projecting 
busts  of  human  figures  (Fig.  178).     The  design  is  often  so  fantas- 


tic that  the  essential  character  of  the  Corinthian  capital  seems 
entirely  lost  sight  of. 

The  entablatures  of  the  temples  built  in  the  Tufa  Period,  as 
of  those  erected  in  later  times,  have  all  perished.  The  entabla- 
tures of  the  colonnades,  however,  are  at  least  in  part  well  pre- 
served in  a  number  of  instances,  and  are  of  two  types,  the 
Doric,  characterized  by  the  use  of  triglyphs,  and  the  Ionic,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  dentils  of  the  cornice. 

Both  types  are  found  also  in  the  wall  decoration,  the  first 
rarely,  the  second  very  frequently.  On  the  altar  of  the  temple 
of  Zeus  Milichius,  which  is  of  tufa  coated  with  stucco,  the  Doric 
entablature  appears  in  association  with  the  characteristic  dec- 
oration of  the  first  style,  the  imitation  of  large  blocks  of  marble  ; 
on  the  top  are  terminal  volutes  of  Ionic    origin,  as    generally 


ARCHITECTURE  441 

upon  Roman  altars  and  altar-shaped  tombs  (Fig.  251).  On 
walls  decorated  in  the  first  style,  however,  only  Ionic  entabla- 
tures are  seen,  —  sometimes  even  twice  upon  the  same  wall,  as 
in  the  example  shown  in  Fig.  122.  From  this  we  infer  that  in 
the  temple  construction  of  the  Tufa  Period,  the  simple  and 
elegant  Ionic  entablature  was  the  prevailing  type. 

Notwithstanding  its  free  adaption  of  Greek  forms,  the  Tufa 
Period  availed  itself  very  sparingly  of  polychrome  decoration 
for  architectural  members.  The  stucco  of  the  Ionic  capital  in 
the  house  of  the  Faun  is  white  ;  white  likewise  are  most  of  the 
capitals  of  pilasters  found  in  the  houses,  and  also  the  numerous 
Ionic  cornices  on  the  walls. 

There  are,  nevertheless,  scanty  traces  of  the  application  of 
color.  In  the  wall  decoration  of  the  house  of  Sallust  we  find  a 
Doric  frieze  with  the  metopes  painted  red.  The  frieze  under 
the  Ionic  cornices  on  the  walls  also  is  usually  made  prominent 
with  color,  —  red,  yellow,  or  blue  ;  and  a  red  frieze  is  seen  in 
the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Black  Wall,  above  the  pilas- 
ters of  the  garden  wall.  The  lower  stripe  of  the  painted  archi- 
trave in  the  house  of  the  Faun,  already  referred  to,  is  yellow. 

It  seems  probable  that  in  some  cases  color  was  applied  to  the 
projecting  figures  of  the  peculiar  capitals  used  in  houses ;  at 
the  time  of  excavation,  traces  of  coloring  were  distinctly  seen 
upon  those  belonging  to  the  alae  of  the  house  of  Epidius  Rufus 
(p.  309).  The  exposed  capitals  at  the  entrances  (Fig.  178),  if 
originally  painted,  would  naturally  have  lost  all  traces  of  the 
coloring  before  the  destruction  of  the  city,  unless  it  were  from 
time  to  time  renewed.  Notwithstanding  these  exceptions,  we 
must  conclude  that  the  stucco  coating  upon  public  buildings  and 
temples  was  generally  white,  in  the  case  of  capitals  and  cornices 
as  well  as  of  the  shafts  of  columns  and  outside  walls ;  colors 
were  used  to  a  limited  extent,  upon  friezes  and  perhaps  other 
parts  of  entablatures. 

The  architectural  remains  of  the  half  century  immediately 
succeeding  the  Tufa  Period,  between  the  founding  of  the  Roman 
colony  at  Pompeii  and  the  establishment  of  the  Empire,  present 
nothing  specially  characteristic  outside  of  the  peculiarities  of 
construction  mentioned  in  chap.  6. 


442 


POMPEII 


In  the  earlier  years  of  the  Empire,  the  Pompeians,  as  Roman 
subjects  everywhere,  commenced  to  build  temples  and  colon- 
nades of  marble.  The  style,  which  was  distinctively  Roman,  can 
be  studied  to  better  advantage  elsewhere ;  the  remains  at  Pom- 
peii are  relatively  unimportant,  and  the  chief  points  of  interest 
have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  our  study  of  individual 
buildings. 

The  stylistic  development  of  Roman  architecture  in  the  next 
period,  —  the  gradual  transition  from  the  simplicit}^  of  the  Au- 
gustan Age  to  the  more  elaborate  ornamentation  of  the  Flavian 
Era,  —  is  marked  by  two  opposing  tendencies,  one  conservative, 
holding  to  the  traditions  of  marble  construction,  the  other  re- 


''? 


Fig.  252.  —  Capitals  of  columns,  showing  variations  from  typical  forms. 
A.   Ornate  Doric,  from  the  house  of  Sallust.         B.    Modified  Corinthian.         C.   Fantastic  Corinthian. 


actionary.  The  latter  tendency  manifests  itself  so  strongly  at 
Pompeii  that  it  merits  special  comment. 

First  in  the  East,  it  appears,  men  wearied  of  seeing  the  orna- 
mental forms  of  the  Greek  religious  architecture  repeated  over 
and  over  again  in  every  kind  of  building,  and  attempted  to 
break  away  from  them  entirely.  The  reaction  reached  Italy  in 
the  earlier  years  of  the  Empire,  and  began  to  exert  an  influence 
upon  ornamental  forms,  especially  of  domestic  architecture,  at 
the  time  when  the  third  style  of  wall  decoration  was  coming 
into  vogue. 

At  Pompeii,  this  revolt  from  tradition  affected  not  only  the 
ornamentation  of  private  houses,  but  also  that  of  public  build- 
ings, as  the  Stabian  Baths,  and  even  of  temples,  as  those  ot 
Apollo  and  Isis,  rebuilt  after  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63. 


ARCHITECTURE 


443 


Greek  forms  were  replaced  by  fantastic  designs  of  every  sort, 
worked  in  stucco.  Tlie  capitals  of  columns  and  pilasters  re- 
tained a  semblance  of  Doric  and  Corinthian  types,  but  were 
adorned  with  motives  from  many  sources ;  the  variety  of  form 
and  treatment  can  best  be  appreciated 
by  inspecting  the  examples  shown  in 
our  illustrations  (Figs.  242,  253,  254). 

The  entablatures  no  longer  retained 
the  ancient  division  of  architrave,  frieze, 
and  cornice,  but  were  made  to  represent 
a  single  broad  stripe,  sometimes,  how- 
ever, with  a  projecting  cornice ;  this 
stripe  was  ornamented  with  stucco  re- 
liefs, and  was  frequently  painted  in 
bright  colors.  Sometimes  the  decora- 
tive theme  is  taken  from  a  vine,  as  in  the  entablature  of  the 
portico  in  front  of  the  temple  of  Isis  (Fig.  80)  and  that  of  the 
peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii  (Fig.  161).  In  some  cases 
the  stripe  is  divided  into  vertical  sections ;  the  broad  sections  cor- 
respond with  the  intercolumniations,  the  narrow  ones  with  the 


Fig.  253.  —  Capital  of  pilaster, 
modified  Corinthian  type. 


Fig.  254.  —  Caphais  of  pikiblers,  showing  free  adaptations  oi  the  Corinthian  type. 


spaces  above  the  columns  ;  and  the  ornamental  design  is  varied 
accordingly,  as  in  the  palaestra  of  the  Stabian  Baths  (p.  198), 
the  court  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  (Fig.  31),  and  the  peristyle 
of  the  house  of  the  Silver  Wedding.  In  many  instances  the 
background  is  white,  frequently  part  of  the  details  of  ornament 
as  well ;  but  colors  were  freely  used,  particularly  red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  in  all  parts  of  the  entablature. 

The  lower  third  of  the  columns  also  was  painted  a  bright  red 
or  yellow  —  a  treatment  that  would  have  been  abhorrent  to  the 


444  pompp:ii 

taste  of  the  Tufa  Period.  The  desire  for  variety  and  brilliancy 
of  color  increased,  and  was  more  pronounced  in  the  years  im- 
mediately preceding  the  eruption  than  at  any  previous  time. 

Consistently  with  this  change  in  the  standard  of  taste  in  re- 
gard to  details,  the  Pompeians  no  longer  had  pleasure  in  the 
ample  dimensions  of  the  olden  time.  Houses  were  not  now 
built  with  high  rooms,  great  doorways,  and  lofty  columns  as 
in  the  Tufa  Period.  The  rooms  were  smaller  and  lower,  and 
also,  we  may  add,  more  homelike.  But  curiously  enough,  the 
columns  were  often  made  thick  as  well  as  short,  doubtless 
in  order  to  afford  more  space  for  the  display  of  color  on  the 
capitals  and  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft. 

Roman  public  and  religious  architecture  in  most  cities  still 
adhered  to  the  forms  of  marble  construction,  a  suggestion  of 
which  we  find  in  the  white  walls  of  the  temple  of  Isis  ;  but  the 
lower  third  of  the  columns  in  the  colonnade  about  this  temple 
was  painted  red,  and  the  entablature  was  no  doubt  ornamented 
with  colored  designs,  as  was  that  of  the  temple  of  Apollo.  The 
best  preserved  example  of  this  last  phase  of  Pompeian  architec- 
tural ornamentation  is  in  the  semicircular  vaulted  niche  at  the 
right  of  the  Street  of  Tombs. 

Thus  we  see  accomplished  at  Pompeii,  in  less  than  two  cen- 
turies, a  complete  revolution  in  matters  of  taste,  so  far  as  relates 
to  architecture.  An  entirely  new  feeling  has  been  developed. 
The  beauty  of  contour  and  of  symmetrical  proportion  found  in 
the  Greek  architecture  had  no  charm  for  the  Pompeian  of  the 
later  time  ;  its  place  had  been  usurped  by  a  different  form  of 
beauty,  that  produced  by  the  use  of  a  variety  of  brilliant  colors  in 
association  with  forms  that  were  intricate,  and  often  grotesque. 


Vii    x/«    S 


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— ~\       ' 


■tIa**^^ 


"^l-oj. 


>:*.$,.  (jr.  «• 


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PLATE  XL— ARTEMIS.     COPY   OF   AN    ARCHAIC   WORK 


CHAPTER    LIII 

SCULPTURE 

The  open  squares  and  public  buildings  of  Pompeii  were 
peopled  with  statues.  The  visitor  who  walked  about  the  Forum 
in  the  years  immediately  preceding  the  eruption,  saw  on  all 
sides  the  forms  of  the  men  of  past  generations  who  had  ren- 
dered service  to  the  city,  as  well  as  those  of  men  of  his  own 
time. 

Besides  the  five  colossal  images  of  emperors  and  members  of 
the  imperial  families,  places  were  provided  in  the  Forum  for 
between  seventy  and  eighty  life  size  equestrian  statues ;  and 
behind  each  of  these  was  room  for  a  standing  figure.  Whether 
all  the  places  were  occupied  cannot  now  be  determined,  but 
from  the  sepulchral  inscription  of  Umbricius  Scaurus  (p.  418)  it 
is  clear  that  as  late  as  the  time  of  Claudius  or  Nero,  there  was 
yet  room  for  another  equestrian  figure.  Statues  were  placed 
also  in  the  Forum  Triangulare  and  occasionally  at  the  sides  of 
the  streets. 

In  the  portico  of  the  INIacellum  were  twenty-five  statues ;  the 
sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares  contained  eight,  while  the  portico 
of  the  Eumachia  building  furnished  places  for  twenty-one.  But 
only  one  of  the  hundreds  of  statues  erected  in  honor  of  worthy 
citizens  has  been  preserved,  that  of  Holconius  Rufus,  the  re- 
builder  of  the  Large  Theatre ;  the  figure  was  dressed  in  the  uni- 
form of  a  military  tribune,  and  stood  on  Abbondanza  Street 
near  the  Stabian  Baths.  With  this  should  be  classed  the  por- 
trait statues  in  the  temple  of  Fortuna  (p.  131),  and  those  of 
Octavia  (Fig.  38),  Marcellus  (Fig.  39),  and  Eumachia. 

The  statue  of  Eumachia  is  an  interesting  example  of  the 
ordinary  portrait  sculpture  of  the  Early  Empire  (Fig.  255). 
The  pose  is  by  no  means  ungraceful,  the  treatment  of  the 
drapery  is  modest  and  effective.     The  tranquil  and  thoughtful 

445 


446 


POMPEII 


face  is  somewhat  idealized,  and  without  offensive  emphasis  of 
details.  The  statue  is  not  a  masterpiece  ;  nevertheless,  it  gives 
us  a  pleasant  impression  of  the  lady  whose  generosity  placed 

the  fullers  under  obliga- 
tion, and  affords  an  in- 
sight into  the  artistic 
resources  of  the  city. 

A  number  of  portrait 
statues  belonging  to  se- 
pulchral monuments  were 
found  when  the  tombs 
east  of  the  Amphitheatre 
were  excavated  ( Chap.  51). 
Most  of  them  are  of  tufa 
covered  with  stucco ;  the 
rest  are  of  fine-grained 
limestone.  From  the  aes- 
thetic point  of  view  they 
are  valueless. 

Sculptured  portraits  of 
a  different  type  were  set 
up  in  private  houses.  Rel- 
atives,freedmen,and  even 
slaves  sometimes  placed 
at  the  rear  of  the  atrium, 
near  the  entrance  of  the 
flJ^fifl^^^^^^H  tablinum,  a  herm  of  the 
master  of  the  house.  At 
each  side  of  the  square 
pillar  supporting  the  bust, 
there  was  usually  an  arm- 
like projection  (seen  on 
the  herm  of  Cornehus  Rufus,  Fig.  121),  on  which  garlands  were 
hung  upon  birthdays  and  other  anniversary  occasions.  Both  the 
herm  of  Rufus  and  that  of  Vesonius  Primus  previously  mentioned 
(p.  396)  are  of  marble  ;  the  head  belonging  to  the  herm  of  Sorex 
(p.  176)  is  of  bronze. 

The  most  striking  of  the   portrait  herms  is  that  of   Lucius 


Fig.  255.  —  Statue  of  the  priestess  Eumachia. 


SCULPTURE 


447 


Caecilius  Jucundus  (Fig.  256),  which  was  set  up  in  duplicate,  for 
the  sake  of  symmetrical  arrangement,  in  the  atrium  of  his  house 
on  Stabian  Street.     The  pillar  is  of  marble ;  the  dedication  reads 
Goiio    L\_?icii~\     Jiostri    Felix 
l\ibcrtus\,  —  '  Felix,      f reed- 
man,  to  the  Genius  of  our  Lu- 
cius.' 

The  bust,  of  bronze,  is  mod- 
elled with  realistic  vigor. 
There  is  no  attempt  to  soften 
the  prominent  and  almost  re- 
pulsive features  by  idealiza- 
tion. We  see  the  Pompeian 
auctioneer  just  as  he  was,  a 
shrewd,  alert,  energetic  man, 
with  somewhat  of  a  taste  for 
art,  and  more  for  the  good 
things  of  life,  —  a  man  wlio 
would  bear  watching  in  a 
financial  transaction. 

Houses  were  adorned  also 
with  heads  and  busts  of  fa- 
mous men  of  the  past,  —  poets, 
philosophers,  and  statesmen. 
An  extensive  collection  of  his- 
torical portraits  was  discov- 
ered at  Herculaneum,  but 
Pompeii  thus  far  has  not 
yielded  many  examples.  In 
a  room  in  one  of  the  houses 

was    found    a    group    of    three     Fig.256.— Portrait  herm  of  Caecilius  jucundus. 

marble  heads,  about  one  half 

life  size,  representing  Epicurus,  Demosthenes,  and  apparently 
the  Alexandrian  poet  Callimachus,  whose  works  were  particularly 
valued  in  the  time  of  the  Early  Empire.  The  identification  of  the 
third  head  is  not  certain,  but  whether  Callimachus  or  some  other 
poet  is  intended,  the  group  reveals  the  direction  of  the  owner's  lit- 
erary tastes  ;  he  was  interested  in  philosophy,  oratory,  and  poetry. 


448 


POMPEII 


Two  portrait  busts  of  distinguished  men,  which  evidently 
belong  together,  were  found  in  another  house,  laid  one  side. 
In  the  Naples  Museum  they  bore  the  names  of  the  Younger  Bru- 
tus and  Pompey,  but  both  identifications  are  erroneous  ;  the  fea- 
tures in  neither  case  agree  with  the  representations  upon  coins. 
The  faces,  as  shown  by  the  physiognomy  and  the  treatment  of 
the  hair,  are  those  of  Romans  of  the  end  of  the  Republic  or  the 
beginning  of  the   Empire.     Recently  a  new  identification  has 

been  proposed  which  has  much 
in  its  favor.  It  rests  chiefly 
upon  the  resemblance  of  one 
of  the  busts  to  the  mosaic  por- 
trait of  Virgil,  discovered  in 
1896  at  Susa,  in  Africa.  The 
full,  round  face  of  the  other 
agrees  very  well  with  what  we 
know  of  the  appearance  of 
Horace.  It  may  be  that  we 
have  here  a  pair  of  poets,  the 
two  most  prominent  of  the  Au- 
gustan Age. 

Frequently  the  gardens  of 
the  peristyles,  as  those  of  the 
houses  of  the  Vettii  and  of  Lu- 
cretius, were  profusely  adorned 
with  sculptures  of  all  kinds. 
We  find  in  them  statuettes, 
herms,  small  figures  of  animals, 
and  diminutive  groups.  Fig- 
ures derived  from  the  myths  of  the  bacchic  cycle,  Bacchus, 
Silenus,  satyrs,  and  bacchantes,  are  particularly  common.  The 
artistic  value  is  slight ;  among  the  best  examples  is  the  double 
bust,  with  Bacchus  on  one  side  and  a  bacchante  on  the  other, 
found  in  the  garden  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii  (Fig.  257). 

Characteristic  among  these  sculptures  are  the  figures  designed 
for  the  adornment  of  fountains  ;  a  number  of  them  are  exhibited 
in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  Bacchic  figures  are  met  with  most 
frequently.     A  good  example  is  the  marble  Silenus  in  the  garden 


Fig.  257.  —  Double  bust,  Bacchus  and  bac- 
chante.   Garden  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 


SCULPTURE  440 

of  the  house  of  Lucretius  ;  the  water  spurts  from  the  opening 
in  the  wineskin  which  the  old  man  carries.  The  design  of  the 
small  bronze  satyr  in  the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Centenary 
is  more  pleasing ;  an  opening  in  the  wineskin,  held  under  the 
left  arm,  cast  a  jet  against  the  outstretched  right  hand  in  such 
a  way  that  the  water  was  thrown  back  upon  the  satyr's  body. 

Fountains  were  adorned  also  with  genre  groups  and  animal 
forms.  We  have  already  noticed  the  two  bronze  groups  in  the 
peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  each  representing  a  boy 
holding  a  duck,  from  the  bill  of  which  sprang  a  jet  of  water 
(Fig.  162).  The  largest  collection  of  animal  forms  was  about 
the  basin  in  the  middle  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the  Citharist ; 
it  comprised  two  dogs,  a  boar,  a  lion,  a  deer,  and  a  snake,  each 
throwing  a  jet  into  the  basin  below.  The  fountain  jets,  how- 
ever, were  not  in  all  cases  so  closely  related  to  the  ornamental 
pieces.  A  number  of  those  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii  sprang 
from  lead  pipes  near  the  figures.  The  famiUar  bronze  statue  of 
the  seated  fisherman,  in  the  Naples  Museum,  belonged  to  a  foun- 
tain, in  which  the  jet  was  thrown  forward,  not  from  the  figure, 
but  from  the  mouth  of  a  mask  projecting  from  the  stump  on 
which  the  fisherman  sits. 

Of  the  statues  of  divinities  set  up  for  worship  in  the  temples, 
there  are  unfortunately  but  few  remains.  The  most  important 
fragment  is  the  head  of  Jupiter,  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter 
(Fig.  22).  Three  wretched  terra  cotta  statues  of  the  gods  of  the 
Capitol  were  found,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  temple  of  Zeus  Mili- 
chius  ;  and  mention  has  been  made  also  of  the  herms  and  other 
specimens  of  sculpture  in  the  courts  of  the  temples  of  Apollo 
and  Isis,  and  in  the  palaestra.  More  numerous  than  any  other 
class  of  sculptures,  however,  are  the  small  bronze  images  of 
tutelary  divinities  preserved  in  the  domestic  shrines.  These 
are  of  interest  rather  from  the  light  which  they  shed  on  the 
practices  of  domestic  worship  than  from  their  excellence  as 
works  of  art,  and  it  seems  unnecessary  to  add  anything  here  to 
what  has  already  been  said  in  regard  to  them  in  the  chapter 
dealing  with  the  arrangements  of  the  Pompeian  house.  But 
occasionally  there  w^ere  large  domestic  shrines,  in  which  statues 
of  merit  were  placed  ;  among  these  are  two  worthy  of  mention. 


450  POMPEII 

In  the  corner  of  a  garden  belonging  to  a  house  in  the  first 
Region  (I.  ii.  17)  is  a  shrine  faced  with  white  marble,  in  which 
was  a  small  marble  statue  of  Aphrodite,  partly  supported  by  a 
figure  commonly  identified  as  Hope,  S/^es.  The  carving  is  in  no 
way  remarkable,  but  the  statue  is  of  interest  on  account  of  the 
well  preserved  coloring  applied  to  the  eyes,  hair,  and  dress. 
The  group  is  now  in  the  Naples  Museum. 

A  more  important  example,  from  the  aesthetic  point  of  view, 
is  the  statue  of  Artemis,  of  one  half  life  size,  shown  in  Plate  XI. 
It  was  found  in  a  house  near  the  Amphitheatre  which  was  ex- 
cavated in  1760  and  covered  up  again.  It  is  a  careful  copy, 
made  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  of  a  Greek  masterpiece  produced 
in  the  period  of  the  Persian  Wars.  The  original  was  probably 
the  Artemis  Laphria  mentioned  by  Pausanias.  This  was  a  work 
of  Menaechmus  and  Soedas,  two  sculptors  of  Naupactus.  Pre- 
vious to  the  battle  of  Actium  it  stood  in  a  sanctuary  in  Calydon, 
whence  it  was  removed  by  Augustus,  who  presented  it  to  the 
colony  founded  by  him  at  Patras. 

The  goddess  appears  in  this  statue  as  a  huntress,  moving  for- 
ward with  a  firm  but  light  step  ;  the  bow  in  the  left  hand  has 
disappeared.  The  copyist  was  remarkably  successful  in  im- 
pressing upon  his  work  the  gracious  and  pleasing  character  of 
the  original ;  the  later  archaic  Greek  art,  in  spite  of  its  conven- 
tions, is  full  of  human  feeling.  The  copy  preserved  also  the 
coloring  of  the  model  ;  but  the  tinting  of  the  Roman  colorist 
was  probably  less  delicate  than  that  of  the  Greek  limner  who 
added  the  polychrome  decoration  to  the  marble  original.  The 
hair  was  yellow.  The  pupils  of  the  eyes  were  brown,  the  eye- 
lashes and  eyebrows  black.  The  rosettes  of  the  diadem  were 
yellow,  and  the  border  of  the  outer  garment  was  richly  varie- 
gated in  tints  of  yellow,  rose  color,  and  white.  Traces  of  rose- 
colored  stripes  are  visible  also  about  the  openings  of  the  sleeves, 
on  the  edge  of  the  mantle  at  the  neck,  and  on  the  border  of  the 
chiton. 

Besides  the  bronze  statues  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  already 
mentioned  (pp.  88.  352),  four  others  of  those  found  at  Pompeii 
are  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice,  —  the  dancing  satyr 
from   which    the    house    of   the    Faun    received   its   name,  the 


SCULPTURE 


451 


small  Silenus  used  as  a  standard  for  a  vase,  the  so-called  Nar- 
cissus and  the  Ephebus  found  in  1900. 

The  dancing  satyr  is  shown  in  Fig.  258.  It  was  found  lying 
on  the  floor  of  the  atrium  in  the  house  of  the  Faun,  but  the 
pedestal  could  not  be 
identified.  The  fig- 
ure is  instinct  with 
rhythmic  motion. 
Every  muscle  of  the 
satyr's  sinewy  frame 
is  in  tension  as  he 
moves  forward  in  the 
dance,  snapping  his 
fingers  to  keep  time ; 
the  pose  is  a  marvel 
of  skill.  The  un hu- 
man character  of  the 
half-brute  is  indicated 
by  the  horns  project- 
ing from  the  forehead, 
and  the  pointed  ears. 
The  face,  marked  by 
low  cunning,  offers  no 
suggestion  of  lofty 
thought  or  moral 
sense.  We  have  here 
the  personification  of 
unalloyed  physical  en- 
joyment. The  satyr, 
unvexed  by  any  care 
or  qualm  of  con- 
science, is  intoxicated  with  the  joy  of  free  movement,  and  dances 
on  and  on,  unwearied,  with  perfect  ease  and  grace. 

Muscular  tension  is  skilfully  indicated  in  the  Silenus,  who 
stands  holding  above  his  head  with  his  left  hand  a  round  frame, 
in  which,  as  shown  by  the  fragments,  a  vase  of  colored  glass  was 
standing  at  the  time  of  the  eruption.  The  head,  crowned  with 
ivy,  leans  forward  and  to  the  right,  and  the  right  hand  is  moved 


■  Dancing  Faun.     Bronze  statuette,  now  in  tlie 
-Naples  Museum. 


452 


POMPEII 


away  from  the  body  in  the  effort  to  balance  the  weight  sup 
ported  by  the  left.  The  frame  is  awkwardly  designed  to  repre 
sent  a  snake.     The  thick-set  figure  of  Silenus  is  about  sixteen 


Fig.  259.  —  Listening  Dionysus,  wrongly  identified  as  Narcissus.     Bronze  statuette  in  the 

Naples  Museum. 


inches  high.     This  bronze  was  discovered  in  1864,  in  the  house 
of  Popidius  Priscus  (VII.  ii.  20). 

The  third  of  the  bronzes  mentioned  is  also  a  statuette,  about 
two  feet  high  (Fig.  259).      It  was  found  in  1863  in  a  house  of  the 


seventh  Region  (VII.  xii.  21). 


The  figure  is,  that  of  a  youth  of 


SCULPTURE  453 

remarkable  beauty.  The  face  wears  an  expression  of  childlike 
innocence  and  pleasure.  The  head  leans  forward  in  the  attitude 
of  listening ;  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand  is  extended,  and 
the  graceful  pose  is  that  of  one  who  catches  the  almost  inaudible 
sound  of  a  distant  voice. 

The  name  Narcissus,  given  to  the  figure  by  Fiorelli  imme- 
diately upon  its  discovery,  is  surely  wrong ;  that  unhappy  youth 
did  not  reciprocate  the  love  of  the  nymph  Echo,  and  could  not 
have  been  imagined  with  so  cheerful  a  face.  The  figure  has 
also  been  called  Pan,  from  a  myth  in  which  Pan  and  Echo 
appear  together  ;  but  the  characteristic  attributes  are  lacking, 
and  the  rough  god  of  the  shepherds  would  not  have  been  repre- 
sented in  so  lithe  and  graceful  a  form. 

This  beautiful  youth,  with  an  ivy  crown  upon  his  head  and 
elaborate  coverings  for  the  feet,  and  with  the  skin  of  a  doe 
hanging  over  his  shoulder,  is  none  other  than  Dionysus  himself. 
The  mirthful  god  of  the  vine  is  not  playing  with  his  panther  — 
the  base  is  too  small  to  have  been  designed  for  two  figures,  and 
the  attitude  of  listening  is  not  consistent  with  this  interpretation. 
The  youthful  divinity  has  fixed  his  attention  upon  some  distant 
sound,  —  the  cries  of  the  bacchantes  upon  some  mountain  height, 
or  the  laughter  of  naiads  in  a  shady  glen. 

Of  unusual  interest  is  the  bronze  statue  of  an  ephebus,  dis- 
covered in  November,  1900,  outside  the  city  on  the  north  side, 
about  a  hundred  paces  from  the  Vesuvius  Gate ;  it  was  laid 
away  in  an  upper  room  of  a  house  presenting  nothing  else 
worthy  of  note.  It  is  apparently  a  Greek  original,  and  is  of 
three-quarters  life  size  (Fig.  257). 

The  statue  represents  a  youth  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  of 
slender  but  well-developed  form,  and  finely  chiselled  features. 
Advancing  with  firm  but  graceful  step,  he  rests  the  right  foot, 
and  is  bringing  the  left  foot  forward.  In  his  right  hand,  ex- 
tended, he  carried  some  object  —  a  branch,  it  may  be,  or  a  crown, 
which  was  to  be  laid  upon  an  altar ;  the  eye  naturally  follows 
the  movement  of  the  hand. 

Especially  effective  is  the  rhythmic  movement  of  the  body. 
The  right  thigh,  sustained  bv  the  resting  foot,  is  carried  slightly 
forward  ;  the  chest  on  the  left  side  swings  back,  while  in  conse- 


454 


POMPEII 


quence  of  the  extension  of  the  right  hand  the  shoulders  remain 
horizontal.  Notwithstanding  the  felicity  of  the  pose,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  the  modelling  as  a  whole  is  somewhat  lacking  in 
vigor,  the  treatment  of  details  being  superficial. 

In  Greece,  before  it  was  carried  off  to  Italy,  the  figure  may 

have  been  set  up  as  a 
votive  offering  in  some 
sanctuary,  or  have 
stood  in  a  gymnasium. 
From  indications  on  the 
under  side  of  the  feet 
it  is  clear  that  the 
statue,  after  the  man- 
ner in  vogue  in  Greece, 
was  mounted  on  a  stone 
pedestal,  being  joined 
to  the  pedestal  with 
melted  lead  ;  the  round 
bronze  base  found  with 
it  is  of  Italian  origin. 
Probably  when  it  was 
being  transported  from 
Greece  the  eyes,  of 
marble  became  loose 
in  their  sockets  and  fell 
down  into  the  hollow 
interior  of  the  statue; 
they  were  replaced  by 
glass  eyes.  The  break- 
ing of  the  right  arm, 
which  was  severed 
when  found,  made  possible  the  recovery  of  the  original  eyes, 
which  have  now  again  been  set  in  place. 

Insensible  to  the  charm  of  the  figure  when  seen  as  the  sculptor 
designed  it,  the  Pompeian  owner,  deciding  to  turn  it  to  practical 
use,  converted  it  into  a  lampholder.  In  the  right  hand  was 
placed  a  short  bar  of  bronze,  to  either  end  of  which  was  fastened 
a  small  ornament  with  a  projecting  arm,  for  a  hanging  lamp ; 


Fig.  260.  —  Bronze  youth.     Naples  Museum 


SCULPTURE  455 

the  whole  statue  was  then  coated  with  silver.  However  bar- 
barous the  taste  that  prompted  the  transformation,  the  decorative 
effect  of  the  silvered  statue  with  its  Hghted  lamps  must  have 
been  far  from  unpleasant. 

Regarding  the  place  of  the  statue  in  relation  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Greek  sculpture,  it  is  yet  too  early  to  speak. 

Had  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  not  been  systematically  searched, 
after  the  disaster,  for  works  of  art  and  other  objects  of  value, 
they  would  have  yielded  a  far  richer  store  of  sculptures.  But 
while  the  specimens  recovered  add  little  to  our  knowledge  of 
types,  they  give  a  new  insight  into  the  application  of  the  sculp- 
tor's art  in  antiquity  to  the  beautifying  of  the  surroundings  of 
everyday  life. 


CHAPTER    LIV 

PAINTING.— WALL  DECORATION 

The  inner  walls  of  houses  and  public  buildings  at  Pompeii 
were  plastered,  and  usually  decorated  with  colors ;  only  store- 
rooms, kitchens,  and  apartments  designed  for  the  use  of  slaves 
were  left  in  the  white.  Outer  walls  were  as  a  rule  plastered, 
except  when  built  of  hewn  stone,  a  kind  of  construction  not 
employed  after  the  Tufa  Period.  Stucco  was  occasionally  used 
on  facades  of  ashlar  work  where  special  ornamentation  seemed 
to  be  needed,  as  at  the  entrance  of  the  house  of  the  Faun  ;  and 
in  later  times,  now  and  then,  a  front  with  reticulate  or  brick 
facing  was  left  unplastered.  Previous  to  the  time  of  Augustus 
the  stucco  coating  of  outer  walls  ordinarily  remained  uncolored. 
Afterwards  color  was  employed,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
as  in  the  addition  of  a  dark  base  to  a  wall  the  rest  of  which 
remained  white. 

The  painting  upon  Pompeian  walls,  as  shown  by  the  pains- 
taking investigations  of  Otto  Donner,  was  fresco,  that  is,  exe- 
cuted in  water  colors  upon  the  moist  stucco  of  a  freshly  plastered 
surface.  The  method  of  preparing  the  wall  was  less  elaborate 
than  that  recommended  by  Vitruvius,  who  advises  the  use  of 
seven  coats  of  plaster,  first  a  rough  coat,  then  three  of  sand 
mortar  and  three  of  stucco  made  with  powdered  marble,  each 
coat  being  finer  than  the  one  preceding.  In  the  better  rooms, 
however,  we  find  upon  the  walls  at  least  one,  often  several, 
layers  of  sand  mortar,  and  one  or  more  coats  of  marble  stucco  ; 
the  entire  thickness  of  the  plastering  varies  from  two  to  three 
inches.  In  unfinished  or  neglected  rooms  walls  are  sometimes 
found  with  a  single  coat  of  sand  mortar.  Occasionally  powdered 
brick  was  used  in  the  stucco  as  a  substitute  for  marble  dust. 

Plastering  so  thick  as  that  ordinarily  used  must  have  remained 
moist  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  much  longer  than  the 

456 


WALL   DECORATION  457 

plastering  of  our  day  ;  yet  it  could  not  have  retained  its  moisture 
long  enough  to  complete  the  painting  of  an  entire  wall  as  one 
piece.  Walls  which  are  elaborately  decorated  sometimes  show 
traces  of  a  seam,  where  a  moist  section  was  laid  on  next  to  one 
that  had  already  become  partially  dry.  When  the  decorative 
design  included  pictures,  usually  the  divisions  and  borders  and 
other  decorative  elements  were  finished  rapidly  while  the  sur- 
face was  moist ;  then  a  square  or  round  hole  was  cut  where  a 
picture  was  to  be  inserted,  and  filled  with  fresh  stucco,  on  which 
the  picture  was  painted.  In  this  way  a  carefully  executed 
painting  could  be  set  in  a  wall  already  dry. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  city  pictures  were  sometimes  painted  ^-^^'i  ^ 
on  the  dry  surface  of  a  wall  that  had  previously  received  its  n  ''<  ,^ 
decorative  framework ;  some  of  the  figures  seen  in  the  middle 
of  the  large  panels  furnish  examples  of  this  method  of  work. 
A  size  of  some  kind  must  have  been  used  in  such  cases,  but 
chemical  analysis  thus  far  has  failed  to  determine  its  nature. 
The  distemper  painting  was  much  less  durable  than  the  fresco, 
the  colors  of  which  became  fixed  with  the  hardening  of  the 
wall. 

Sometimes,  as  in  the  house  of  Lucretius,  the  place  of  paint- 
ings upon  stucco  was  taken  by  paintings  upon  wood,  the  wooden 
panels  being  let  into  the  wall.  As  these  panels  were  thin  and 
lacked  durability,  we  may  perhaps  believe  that  the  paintings 
which  they  contained  were  of  inferior  quality. 

The  artistic  value  of  Pompeian  painting  varies  from  the  rou- 
tine work  of  indifferent  decorators  to  pictures  of  genuine  merit, 
such  as  those  found  in  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  the  house 
of  the  Vettii,  and  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  Viewed  as  a 
whole,  the  wall  decoration  has  a  peculiar  interest  for  us ;  it  not 
only  richly  illustrates  the  application  of  painting  by  the  ancients 
to  decorative  uses,  but  also  affords  a  striking  example  of  the 
evolution  of  decorative  designs  from  simple  architectural  motives 
to  intricate  patterns,  in  which  the  scheme  of  coloring  is  hardly 
less  complicated  than  that  of  the  ornamental  forms. 

The  four  styles  of  wall  decoration  were  briefly  characterized 
in  the  Introduction,  in  connection  with  our  survey  of  the  periods 


458  POMPEII 

of  construction.  It  now  remains  to  illustrate  these  by  typical 
examples  and  to  trace  their  inner  connection.  We  are  here 
concerned  only  with  the  decorative  designs,  or  ornamental 
framework  of  the  walls ;  the  paintings,  which  formed  the 
centre  of  interest  in  the  later  styles,  are  reserved  for  consid- 
eration in  a  separate  chapter. 

The  development  of  ancient  wall  decoration  came  compara- 
tively late,  after  the  art  of  painting,  in  the  hands  of  the  Greek 
masters,  had  reached  and  passed  its  climax.  Yet  we  know 
almost  nothing  in  regard  to  the  earlier  stages.  Apparently  the 
system  which  we  find  at  Pompeii  originated  in  the  period  fol- 
lowing the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  received  its  impulse 
of  development  from  the  contact  of  Greece  with  the  Orient. 
But  whatever  the  origin,  from  the  time  to  which  the  earliest 
specimens  at  Pompeii  belong  —  the  second  century  b.c.  —  to 
the  destruction  of  the  city,  we  can  trace  an  uninterrupted  de- 
velopment, which,  nevertheless,  comes  to  an  end  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  first  century  a.d. 

The  decline  is  characterized  by  increasing  poverty  of  design, 
with  feeble  imitation  of  past  styles.  Just  as  it  is  setting  in,  how- 
ever, extant  examples  become  rare.  Some  specimens  of  the 
wall  decoration  of  later  times,  as  of  the  period  of  the  Antonines 
and  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  are  preserved,  but  they  are 
isolated  and  not  sufficient  in  number  to  enable  us  to  follow  the 
stages  of  the  decline.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  only  period  in 
the  history  of  ancient  wall  decoration  in  regard  to  which  we 
have  the  materials  for  a  full  and  satisfactory  study,  is  the  period 
exemplified  in  the  remains  at  Pompeii,  the  chronological  sequence 
of  which  extends  over  two  centuries. 

The  oldest  houses,  those  belonging  to  the  Period  of  the  Lime- 
stone Atriums  (p.  39),  have  preserved  no  traces  of  wall  decora- 
tion beyond  the  limited  application  of  white  stucco. 

The  remains  of  the  decoration  of  the  Tufa  Period  are  fairly 
abundant,  and  are  well  preserved  on  account  of  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  stucco  to  which  the  colors  were  applied.  They 
belong  to  the  first  or  Incrustation  Style.  A  good  example 
has  already  been  given,  the  end  wall  of  a  bedroom  in  the  house 
of  the  Centaur  (Fig.  122);  we  present  here,  for  more  detailed 


WALL   DECORATION  459 

examination,  the  left  wall  of  the  atrium  in  the  house  of  Sallust 
(Fig.  261). 

Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  color  in  our  illustration,  the 
divisions  of  the  wall  are  plainly  seen  —  a  dado,  painted  yellow  ; 
a  relatively  low  middle  division,  the  upper  edge  of  which  is  set 
off  by  a  projecting  cornice;  and  an  upper  part  reaching  from 
the  first  cornice,  which  appears  in  three  sections  on  account  of 
the  doors,  to  the  second.  The  surface  of  the  main  part  of  the 
wall  is  moulded  in  stucco  to  represent  slabs  or  blocks  with  bev- 
elled edges,  which  are  painted  in  imitation  of  different  kinds  of 
marble.  Above  the  high  double  doors  opening  into  rooms  con- 
nected with  the  atrium,  frames  of  lattice-work  for  the  admission 
of  air  and  light  have  been  assumed  in  our  restoration. 

The  dado  in  the  Incrustation  Style  is  generally  treated  as  a 
separate  member ;  in  rare  instances  the  imitation  of  marble 
blocks  is  extended  to  the  floor.  It  has  a  smooth  surface  and  is 
painted  a  bright  color,  usually  yellow ;  there  is  no  suggestion 
of  the  practice  of  later  times,  which  gave  a  darker  color  to  the 
base  than  to  the  rest  of  the  wall.  This  independent  handling 
is  undoubtedly  to  be  explained  as  a  survival  from  a  previous 
decorative  system,  in  which  the  lower  part  of  the  wall,  as  at 
Tiryns,  was  protected  by  a  baseboard ;  the  conventional  yellow 
color  with  which  it  is  painted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  lower  stripe 
of  the  Doric  architrave  in  the  house  of  the  Faun  (p.  51),  is  a 
reminiscence  of  the  use  of  wood.  The  upper  edge  of  the  dado 
was  ordinarily  distinguished  by  a  smooth,  narrow  projecting 
band  or  fillet. 

The  blocks  moulded  in  slight  relief  upon  the  main  part  of  the 
wall  are  of  different  sizes.  In  our  illustration  we  see  first  a 
series  of  three  large  slabs,  which  are  painted  black.  Above 
these  are  three  narrow  blocks  of  magenta.  The  rest  present 
a  considerable  variety  of  size  and  color,  until  we  reach  those 
just  under  the  cornice,  which  again  are  all  of  the  same  shade, 
magenta. 

The  cornice  in  this  style  is  always  of  the  Ionic  type,  with 
dentils.  In  many  cases,  as  that  of  the  bedroom  in  the  house 
of  the  Centaur,  it  serves  as  an  upper  border  for  the  decora- 
tion, the  wall  above  being  unpainted.     Sometimes,  however,  the 


460 


POMPEII 


imitation  of  marble  is  carried  above  the  cornice,  the  wall  surface 
being  divided  to  represent  smoothly  joined  blocks  without 
bevelled  edges,  or  painted  in  plain  masses  of  color  separated 
by  a  narrow  white  stripe,  as  in  the  atrium  of  the  house  of  Sal- 
lust.  Above  these  brilliant  panels  we  see  in  Fig.  261  a  second 
cornice  of  simple  design  ;  the  wall  between  this  cornice  and  the 
ceiling  was  left  without  decoration. 

This  system  made  no  provision  for  paintings  ;  their  place  was 
taken  in  the  general  scheme  of  decoration  by  elaborate  mosaic 


Fig.  261. 


-Wall  decoration  in  the  atrium  of  the  house  of  Sallust.     First  or 
Incrustation  Stvle. 


pictures  upon  the  floor.  The  taste  of  the  age  evidently  pre- 
ferred representations  in  mosaic ;  otherwise  the  painting  of 
pictures  upon  the  walls,  which  was  brought  to  so  high  a  degree 
of  perfection  by  Polygnotus  and  his  contemporaries,  would  not 
have  been  abandoned. 

The  Incrustation  Style,  as  exemplified  at  Pompeii,  is  in  a 
secondary  stage ;  it  must  have  been  worked  out  originally  in 
genuine  materials,  at  a  time  when  walls  were  actually  veneered, 
to  a  certain  height,  with  slabs  of  various  kinds  of  marble,  cut 
and  arranged  to  represent  ashlar  work ;  above  the  cornice 
marking  the  upper  edge  of  the  veneering,  the  surface  was  left 
in  the  white.     The  use  of  different  varieties  of  marble  points 


WALL  I)p:coration 


461 


to  an  active  commercial  intercourse  between  the  countries  about 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  such  as  iirst  became  possible  after  the 
conquests  of  Alexander.  So  characteristic  a  style,  requiring 
the  use  of  costly  materials,  could  only  have  been  developed  in 
an  important  centre  of  wealth  and  culture. 

In  view  of  all  the  circumstances,  we  are  probably  safe  in 
concluding  that  the  Incrustation  Style  originated  in  Alexandria, 
in  the  third  century  b.c.  From  Alexandria  it  spread  to  other 
cities  of  the  East  and  W'est,  stucco  being  used  in  imitation  of 


Fig.262. —  Distribution  of  colors  in  the  section  of  wall  represented  in  Fig.  261. 


marble,  where  marble  could  not  be  procured  ;  scanty  remains 
similar  to  those  at  Pompeii,  and  of  approximately  the  same 
period  —  the  second  century  b.c.  —  have  been  found  at  Per- 
gamon,  on  the  island  of  Delos,  and  lately  in  Priene.  This  style 
represents  for  us  the  wall  decoration  of  Lhe  Hellenistic  age.  It 
is  characterized  by  the  same  poverty  of  form  and  obvious  striv- 
ing after  simplicity  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  architecture  of 
the  Tufa  Period.  The  projecting  cornice  above  the  body  of  the 
wall  is  always  of  the  same  type  ;  yet  the  second  century  e.g. 
enjoyed  a  rich  heritage  of  architectural  forms,  and  lack  of  vari- 
ety in  this  and  other  details  of  ornamentation  was  due,  not  to 
dearth  of  materials,  but  to  the  prevailing  taste. 


462  POMPEII 

The  earliest  known  example  of  the  decoration  of  the  second 
or  Architectural  Style,  is  on  the  walls  of  the  Small  Theatre, 
which  was  built  soon  after  80  b.c.  The  style  remained  in  vogue 
till  the  middle  of  the  reign  of  Augustus ;  it  may  be  loosely 
characterized  as  the  wall  decoration  of  the  first  century  b.c.  It 
shows  an  interesting  development  from  simpler  to  richer  and 
more  complex  forms.  The  more  elaborate  and  finished  designs 
are  not  so  well  exemplified  at  Pompeii  as  in  Rome,  where  two 
beautiful  series  have  been  found,  both  dating  from  the  earlier 
part  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  One  series  is  in  the  so-called 
house  of  Livia  or  Germanicus  on  the  Palatine.  The  other  was 
found  in  a  house  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  excavated  in 
1878;  the  paintings  were  removed  to  the  new  Museo  delle 
Terme.  The  specimen  shown  in  Plate  XII,  however,  is  from  a 
Pompeian  wall ;  the  room  in  which  it  was  found  opens  off  from 
the  peristyle  of  a  house  in  the  fifth  Region  (V.  i.  18). 

The  oldest  walls  of  the  second  style  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  first,  with  this  characteristic  difference  :  the  imitation  of 
marble  veneering  is  no  longer  produced  with  the  aid  of  relief  ; 
color  alone  is  employed,  upon  a  plane  surface,  as  in  the  cella  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  (Fig.  20).  The  earlier  division  of  the 
wall  into  three  parts  is  retained,  but  the  painted  cornice,  no 
longer  restricted  to  the  dentil  type,  appears  in  a  variety  of 
forms.  The  base  also  is  treated  with  greater  freedom.  Fre- 
quently it  is  painted  in  strong  projection,  as  if  the  rest  of  the 
wall  above  it  were  further  from  the  eye,  while  upon  the  shelf 
thus  formed  are  painted  columns  reaching  to  the  ceiling  and 
seemingly  in  front  of  the  main  part  of  the  wall ;  such  columns 
and  pillars,  with  Corinthian  capitals,  are  seen  in  Plate  XII,  at  the 
right  and  the  left. 

Thus  the  designs  of  this  style  at  first  comprised  only  simple 
elements,  a  wall  made  up  of  painted  blocks  or  panels  with  a  dado 
painted  in  projection  supporting  columns  that  seemed  to  carry 
an  architrave  on  which  the  ceiling  rested  ;  there  is  an  excellent 
example  in  the  house  of  the  Labyrinth,  on  the  walls  of  a  room 
at  the  rear  of  the  garden.  But  the  designs  gradually  became 
more  complex,  partly  through  the  differentiation  of  the  simple 
elements,  partly  through  the  introduction  of  new  motives,  until 


PLATE  XII. —  SPECIMEN  OF  WALL  DECORATION.  SECOND  OR 
ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE 


WALT.    r)i:CORATION  463 

a  complete  architectural  system  was  developed.  This  system 
differs  from  that  of  the  fourth  style,  which  is  also  architectural, 
in  that  it  adheres  in  the  main  to  actual  or  possible  structural 
forms,  while  those  of  the  fourth  style  are  fantastic  in  their  pro- 
portions and  arrangement. 

In  this  process  of  development  two  clearly  defined  tendencies 
become  manifest,  one  affecting  the  treatment  of  the  upper 
division  of  the  wall,  the  other  the  elaboration  of  a  characteristic 
motive  which  now  first  appears,  a  framework  for  the  principal 
painting  ;  for  architectural  designs  are  well  adapted  for  the  dis- 
play of  pictures,  and  wall  paintings  now  begin  to  have  a  promi- 
nent place  in  Pompeian  decoration. 

The  upper  division  tends  more  and  more  to  be  represented  as 
an  open  space,  behind  the  plane  of  projection  in  which  the  main 
part  appears.  Thus  in  Plate  XII  we  see  on  either  side  a  silver 
vase  with  fruits  and  vine  leaves,  standing  on  the  cornice  of  the 
main  wall,  in  the  open.  Often  the  upper  space  is  painted  blue, 
as  if  one  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  sky  above  the  wall ;  sometimes 
the  outline  of  a  wall  further  beyond  is  seen,  or  columns  in  the 
rear  connected  with  those  in  front  by  a  decorative  framework ; 
and  not  infrequently  small  architectural  designs,  in  perspective, 
rest  upon  the  cornice  where  the  vases  are  shown  in  our  plate. 
But  in  all  the  designs  of  this  style,  complex  as  well  as  simple, 
the  threefold  division  of  the  wall  carried  over  from  the  first 
style  is  retained  ;  very  often  the  distinction  between  the  base, 
main  wall,  and  upper  portion  is  emphasized  by  painting  them  so 
that  they  seem  to  be  in  three  planes  of  projection. 

The  ornamental  framework  for  the  painting,  consistently  with 
the  architectural  character  of  the  decoration  as  a  whole,  is 
generally  conceived  as  a  pavilion  projecting  from  the  wall ;  so 
in  Plate  XII,  where  we  see  two  columns  sustaining  a  roof,  upon 
the  front  of  which  winged  figures  stand,  each  with  a  hand 
extended  upward  to  the  entablature  of  the  large  pillars  at  the 
sides.  The  design  of  the  pavilion  is  suggested  by  that  of  a 
shrine,  such  a  shrine  as  the  one  in  the  apse  of  the  sanctuary  of 
the  City  Lares  (Fig.  41). 

This  conception  is  here  borne  out  by  the  subject  of  the  paint- 
ing, which  represents  a  statue  of  Dionysus  resting,  ivy-crowned, 


464  POMPEII 

with  a  thyrsus  in  his  left  hand  ;  the  right  hand  is  thrown  grace- 
fully over  the  head,  and  at  the  feet  of  the  god  the  lifelike  figure 
of  a  panther  is  seen.  The  round  high  pedestal  supporting  the 
group  is  in  the  open,  and  the  background  affords  a  charming 
vista  among  the  trees. 

This  framing  of  the  principal  painting  led  further  to  the 
division  of  the  body  of  the  wall  vertically  into  three  sections, 
a  broad  central  section,  included  within  the  outline  of  the 
pavilion,  and  two  panels,  one  at  each  side.  The  arrangement 
is  well  illustrated  in  our  plate,  the  side  panels  of  which  are 
adorned  with  painted  statues  of  tastefully  draped  figures,  one  of 
them  holding  a  lyre.  The  later  styles  of  decoration  retained 
this  symmetrical  division  of  the  wall  space,  which  made  promi- 
nent the  picture  of  greatest  interest  without  detracting  from  the 
finish  of  the  decorative  setting  ;  but  in  the  fourth  style  it  is  often 
obscured  by  the  intricacy  of  the  designs. 

The  third  style  came  into  vogue  during  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
and  was  prevalent  until  about  50  a.d.  ;  we  shall  call  it  the 
Ornate  Style,  from  its  free  use  of  ornament.  It  was  developed 
out  of  the  second  style  in  the  same  way  that  the  second  style 
was  developed  out  of  the  first ;  but  the  transition  was  not  ac- 
complished at  Pompeii,  which,  like  the  provincial  cities  of  our 
day,  received  its  fashions  from  the  great  centres. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Ornate  Style,  as  regards  both  the 
main  design  and  the  ornamentation,  may  easily  be  perceived 
from  the  example  presented  in  Fig.  263,  especially  if  this  is 
viewed  in  contrast  with  the  specimen  of  the  preceding  style 
shown  in  Plate  XII.  The  architectural  design  has  now  lost  all 
semblance  of  real  construction.  Columns,  entablatures,  and 
other  members  are  treated  conventionally,  as  subordinate  parts 
of  a  decorative  scheme ;  they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  reduced 
to  narrow  bands  or  stripes  of  color  dividing  the  surface  of  the 
wall.  The  elaborate  border  of  the  central  painting  suggests 
a  pavilion,  yet  the  projecting  base,  which  in  the  second  style 
gave  this  design  its  significance,  is  lacking.  Hardly  less  note- 
worthy is  the  treatment  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  wall.  Fanci- 
ful architectural  forms  and  various  ornaments  stand  out  against 
a  white  background,  suggestive  of  the  open  sky ;  yet  in  our 


WALL   DF.CORATION  465 

example,  as  often  in  this  style,  there  is  no  organic  connection 
between  the  decoration  of  the  main  part  of  the  wall  and  that 
of  the  ceiling. 

Every  part  of  the  framework  of  the  third  style  is  profusely 
ornamented.  The  ornamental  system  is  seen  to  have  a  certain 
affinity  with  that  of  Egypt,  and  Egyptian  figures  occasionally 
appear;  whence  we  infer  that  it  was  developed  in  Alexandria. 
Early  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  in  consequence  of  the  relations 
with  Egypt  following  the  battle  of  Actium,  a  new  impulse  may 
well  have  been  given  to  the  introduction  into  Italy  of  Alexan- 
drian art. 

The  specimen  of  the  third  style  shown  in  Fig.  263  is  from  the 
beautiful  decoration  of  the  house  of  Spurius  Mesor,  portions 
of  which  are  well  preserved.  The  base  of  our  specimen  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  a  lower  border  and  a  broad  stripe  of  black 
divided  into  sections  of  different  shapes  and  sizes  by  lines  of 
light  color.  In  the  small  sections  ornaments  are  seen  painted 
in  delicate  shades,  two  of  them  being  faces. 

The  large  painting  presents  a  mythological  scene,  but  the 
subject  is  not  clear.  The  priestess  seems  to  be  performing  a 
ceremony  of  expiation  in  order  to  free  from  the  taint  of  some 
crime  the  young  man  who,  with  a  wreath  on  his  head  and  a 
sword,  pointed  downward,  in  his  right  hand,  bends  over  the 
hind  just  slain  as  a  sacrifice.  The  colors  are  subdued  and  effec- 
tive ;  the  painting  from  the  technical  point  of  view  is  among 
the  best  found  at  Pompeii. 

Around  the  painting  are  narrow  black  stripes  separated  by 
white  lines ;  in  the  broader  stripe  underneath,  between  the 
columns,  are  two  light  blue  birds  upon  a  dull  red  ground.  The 
small  squares  in  the  flat  cornice  above  are  of  many  colors, 
shades  of  green,  pink,  and  brown  predominating.  The  broad 
panels  on  either  side  of  the  painting  are  of  the  color  often 
called  Pompeian  red ;  they  have  an  ornamented  border,  and  a 
small  winged  figure  in  the  centre.  The  stripe  below  these 
shows  vases  and  other  ornaments  on  an  orange-yellow  ground  ; 
that  above,  interrupted  by  the  cornice  over  the  painting,  is  black, 
with  various  ornaments,  as  baskets  of  fruit,  sistrums,  and  geese, 
painted  in  neutral  colors.     Among  the  ornaments  of  the  upper 


466 


POMPEII 


Fig.  263. —  Specimen  of  wall  decoration.     Third  or  Ornate  Style. 
From  the  house  of  Spiu'ius  Mesor. 


part  of  the  wall,  festoons  of  leaves,  vines,  vases,  parrots,  and 
griffins  can  be  distinguished,  painted  in  light  shades  of  brown, 
blue,  green,  and  yellow. 

The  effect  of  the  Ornate  Style,  with  its  symmetrical  forms 
and  variety  of  detail,  is  pleasing ;  but  the  free  use  of  neutral 


WALL    DECORATION  467 

tones  gives  the  walls  a  somewhat  cold  and  formal  appearance 
when  we  bring  into  contrast  the  warm  coloring  of  the  next 
period. 

The  fourth  or  Intricate  Style  first  appears  about  the  middle  -4". 
of  the  first  century  a.d.  It  started,  as  did  the  third,  with  the 
symmetrical  division  of  the  wall  developed  in  the  second  style ; 
it  differs  from  the  third  in  that  it  always  retained  a  sense  of 
architectural  form.  The  columns  are  often  fluted,  as  in  a  speci- 
men in  the  Naples  Museum  (Fig.  264).  The  entablatures  and 
coffered  ceilings,  light  and  airy  as  they  often  seem,  have  never- 
theless a  suggestion  of  reality  ;  we  know  that  architectural  forms 
are  presented,  and  not  mere  stripes  of  color.  Yet  the  difference 
between  the  fourth  and  the  second  style  is  no  less  apparent. 
In  the  latter  the  architectural  designs  are  not  inconsistent  with 
real  construction  ;  in  the  former  the  imagination  of  the  designer 
had  free  scope,  producing  patterns  so  fantastic  and  intricate 
that  the  fundamental  idea  at  the  basis  of  the  wall  divisions 
seems  entirely  lost  sight  of  at  times. 

The  preference  for  architectural  forms  was  carried  so  far  that 
between  the  large  panels  of  black,  red,  or  yellow,  vertical  sec- 
tions of  wall  were  left  which  were  filled  with  airy  structures  on 
a  white  background ;  the  parts  represented  as  nearest  the  be- 
holder were  painted  yellow,  those  further  back  were  adorned 
with  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  color 
perspective  (Fig.  265).  The  designs  of  the  main  part  were  ex- 
tended into  the  upper  division,  and  frequently  the  whole  wall 
appears  as  an  intricate  scaffolding,  partially  concealed  by  the 
large  panels  ;  these  sometimes  have  the  appearance  of  tapestries 
hanging  suspended  from  the  scaffolding,  and  are  so  treated,  as  | 
in  the  case  of  the  curtains  shown  in  Plate  XIII.  The  fundamen- 
tal conception  of  the  decorative  system  is  lost  when  the  back- 
ground of  the  upper  part  and  of  the  airy  scaffoldings  is  no 
longer  left  white,  but  painted  the  same  color  as  the  rest  of  the 
wall,  so  that  the  effect  of  distance  and  perspective  is  obscured. 
Occasionally,  also,  the  architectural  framework  of  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  wall  has  no  connection  with  that  of  the  main  part. 

The  ornaments  of  the  fourth  style  were  taken  largely  from 
the  domain  of  plastic  art.      Groups  of  statuary  as  well  as  single 


468 


POMPKII 


figures  appear  either  upon  projecting  portions  of  the  architec- 
tural framework,  as  in   Fig.  264,  or  in  the  background.     They 

are  frequently  painted 
yellow,  suggesting  the 
gilding  applied  to  an- 
cient statues,  particu- 
larly those  of  bronze, 
and  present  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  masses 
of  strong  color  in  the 
large  panels  and  the 
brilliant  shades  of  the 
architectural  designs. 
They  are  in  harmony 
with  the  taste  of  the 
period,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  manifested 
a    fondness    for    orna- 


mentation m  stucco 
relief,  the  effect  of 
which  was  heightened 
b\'  the  free  use  of  color. 
The  large  panels  con- 
tained paintings  of  va- 
rious sizes,  sometimes 
copies  of  masterpieces, 
more  often  a  simple 
floating  figure  or  a  Cu- 
pid :  groups  are  also 
found,  as  Cupid  and 
Pysche.  or  a  satyr  with 


Fig.  264.  —  Specimen  of  wall  decoratiun.      Fourth  style. 


a  bacchante.  The  appearance  of  a  picture  worked  in  tapestry  is 
given  by  a  border  just  inside  the  framework  of  the  panel,  as 
often  in  the  decoration  of  the  fourth  style. 

The  fourth  style  cannot  have  been  derived  from  the  third. 
It  is  organically  related  with  the  second,  out  of  which  it  was 
developed  by  laying  stress  on  precisely  that  element,  the  archi- 
tectural, the  suppression  of  which  gave  rise  to  the  third  style 


WALL   DECORATION 


469 


of  decoration.     The  most  reasonable  explanation  of  the  relations 
of  the  four  styles,  briefly  stated,  is  this  :  — 

The  Incrustation  Style,  a  direct  offshoot  of  Hellenistic  art,  was 
prevalent  in  eastern  cities,  where  it  was  naturally  followed  by  the 
Architectural  Style  ;  this  may  have  been  developed  at  one  centre 
or,  in  different  phases,  at  different  centres  contemporaneously. 


Fig.  265.- —  Specimen  of  wall  decoration.    Fourth  style. 

In  the  middle  panel,  mythological  scene  in  which  Hercules  is  the  principal  figure;  in  each 

of  the  panels,  a  satyr  and  a  bacchante. 


At  some  prominent  centre,  probably  Alexandria,  the  Archi- 
tectural Style  passed  over  into  the  Ornate  Style,  which  was 
introduced  into  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  remained  in 
vogue  till  the  middle  of  the  first  century  a.d. 

Meanwhile,  at  some  other  centre  of  culture,  possibly  Antioch, 
the  Architectural  Style,  by  an  equally  natural  course  of  develop- 


470  POMPEII 

ment,  had  passed  over  into  the  Intricate  Style,  which  was  first 
brought  to  Pompeii  about  50  a.d.  and  remained  in  fashion  till 
the  destruction  of  the  city. 

The  earthquake  of  the  year  63'  threw  down  some  buildings 
and  made  necessary  the  thorough-going  repair  of  many  others. 
Between  that  year  and  79,  more  walls  were  freshly  decorated, 
probably,  than  in  any  previous  period  of  equal  length  in  the 
history  of  the  city.  For  this  reason,  examples  of  decoration  in 
the  Intricate  Style  are  much  more  numerous  than  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  length  of  time  that  it  was  in  vogue ; 
they  give  the  prevailing  cast  to  the  remains  of  painting  in  the 
ruins,  and  this  style  is  ordinarily  thought  of  when  Pompeian 
wall  decoration  is  referred  to.  The  complex  designs  and  brill- 
iant colors  form  a  decorative  scheme  which  is  often  most  effec- 
tive, although  the  system  of  the  third  style  reveals  a  finer  and 
more  correct  taste. 

If  no  remains  of  the  two  earlier  styles  had  survived  to  modern 
times,  the  antecedents  and  relations  of  the  other  two  could  not 
possibly  be  understood.  But  with  the  first  two  in  mind,  we  are 
able  to  see  clearly  how  the  most  complex  forms  of  the  later 
decoration  may  be  reduced,  in  last  analysis,  to  simple  elements. 
Even  in  the  example  of  the  Intricate  Style  given  in  Plate  XIII, 
we  find  a  suggestion  of  the  threefold  division  of  the  wall  into 
base,  main  part,  and  upper  part,  which  was  so  prominent  in  the 
Incrustation  Style ;  and  also  an  elaborate  structural  form  at  the 
middle  of  the  wall  recalling  the  pavilion  framework  of  the  sec- 
ond style,  with  a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  architectural 
designs  on  either  side,  suggesting  the  panels  at  the  sides  of  the 
principal  painting. 

The  slabs  of  colored  marble  in  the  Incrustation  Style  are  rep- 
resented by  panels  for  pictures  or  ornamental  forms  of  all  slfapes 
and  sizes  ;  and  the  architectural  designs,  so  simple  at  the  begin- 
ning, have  by  almost  imperceptible  changes  and  additions  be- 
come decorative  patterns  so  varied  and  intricate  that  taken  by 
themselves  they  give  no  hint  of  their  origin. 


CHAPTER    LV 

THE  PAINTINGS 

The  hanging  of  pictures  upon  the  walls  seems  not  to  have 
been  in  vogue  at  Pompeii  during  the  period  to  which  the  re- 
mains belong.  The  system  of  decoration  left  no  room  for 
framed  paintings,  and  no  traces  of  any  such  have  been  dis- 
covered. The  paintings  which  have  been  preserved  at  Pom- 
peii, not  merely  the  small  groups  and  single  figures  introduced 
to  enliven  the  design,  but  the  large  compositions  as  well,  all 
formed  a  part  of  the  wall  decoration. 

The  number  is  relatively  large.  In  the  catalogue  by  Helbig, 
published  in  1868,  there  are  nearly  two  thousand  entries,  in- 
cluding a  few  paintings  from  Herculaneum  and  other  Cam- 
panian  sites.  The  supplement  compiled  by  Sogliano  in  1879 
records  more  than  eight  hundred  pictures  brought  to  light  in 
the  preceding  decade.  We  are  probably  safe  in  estimating  the 
whole  number  of  Pompeian  paintings  still  in  existence,  or  known 
from  description,  as  about  thirty-five  hundred. 

In  all  this  wealth  of  examples,  however,  it  is  not  possible  to 
find  any  evidence  of  a  progressive  development  either  in  com- 
position or  in  technique.  There  are  indeed  slight  differences, 
mainly  in  regard  to  technical  handling  and  color  scheme,  which 
distinguish  the  paintings  found  in  the  decoration  of  the  third 
style  from  those  of  the  other  two  styles  in  which  paintings 
appear ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distinction  between  those  of 
the  second  and  those  of  the  fourth  style  is  much  less  marked. 

The  period  from  80  b.c.  to  79  a.d.  was  as  little  creative  in  the 
field  of  painting  as  in  that  of  sculpture.  No  new  types  appear, 
no  improvements  are  worked  out ;  the  painter,  as  the  sculptor, 
was  an  eclectic,  who  drew  upon  the  creations  of  the  past  as  suited 
his  fancy,  and  contented  himself  with  copying  or  imitating.     In 

471 


472  POMPEII 

the  adaptation  of  paintings  to  decorative  use  the  artist  reproduced 
either  entire  compositions  or  single  motives  which  seemed  to 
answer  his  purpose.  The  general  preference  was  for  paintings 
of  the  Hellenistic  age,  after  the  death  of  Alexander ;  yet 
examples  of  earlier  styles  are  occasionally  found,  as  the  Sacrifice 
of  Iphigenia  (Fig.  156)  and  the  dramatic  scene  in  which  Orestes 
and  Pylades  appear  before  King  Thoas  (Fig.  182). 

New  discoveries  and  the  progress  of  research  will  sometime, 
perhaps,  make  it  possible  to  present  a  general  survey  of  the 
Pompeian  paintings  from  the  historical  and  critical  point  of 
view.  No  such  comprehensive  treatment  is  yet  possible,  how- 
ever, and  we  must  content  ourselves  with  offering  a  few  obser- 
vations in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  paintings  among  the 
different  decorative  styles  and  the  classes  of  subjects  repre- 
sented. 

The  Incrustation  Style,  as  previously  remarked,  left  no  place 
for  paintings  upon  the  walls.  Nevertheless,  in  isolated  cases, 
we  find  a  simple  pictorial  representation  upon  the  surface  of 
one  of  the  blocks  painted  in  imitation  of  marble,  as  if  the  veins 
of  the  stone  had  run  into  a  shape  suggestive  of  an  object,  as  a 
vase  or  a  bird  ;  in  one  instance,  curiously  enough,  a  wrestling 
match  is  outlined,  between  Hercules  and  Antaeus.  In  the  Tufa 
Period  the  desire  for  paintings  was  satisfied  by  the  mosaic 
pictures  upon  the  floor. 

The  earlier  walls  of  the  second  style  in  this  respect  resemble 
those  of  the  first ;  the  examples  in  the  house  of  the  Labyrinth 
have  no  paintings.  The  later  walls,  however,  are  rich  in 
pictures,  but  those  of  Pompeii  are  not  so  abundantly  adorned  as 
those  in  Rome  (p.  462).  The  elaborate  painting  shown  in  the 
pavilion  frame  in  Plate  XII  is  exceptional  among  the  Pompeian 
remains  of  this  style. 

The  great  majority  of  the  paintings  are  found  upon  walls  of 
the  third  and  fourth  styles.  On  the  older  walls  of  the  third 
style,  as  we  have  seen,  the  principal  painting  appears  in  a  frame, 
the  design  of  which  is  taken  from  that  of  the  conventional 
pavilion  of  the  second  style.  In  later  examples  the  close 
relation  between  the  picture  and  the  frame  is  no  longer  main- 
tained ;    the  frame   simply  encloses  a  large   panel   of   uniform 


THE    PAINTINGS  473 

color,  in  the  middle  of  which  a  relatively  small  picture  is  seen. 
This  arrangement  was  carried  over  into  the  fourth  style,  but  the 
conception  of  a  pavilion  frame  is  entirely  lost  sight  of ;  the 
painting  is  in  the  middle  of  a  large  panel  of  brilliant  color, 
around  which  the  architectural  framework  is  extended.  A 
Pompeian  room  well  decorated  in  either  of  the  later  styles  con- 
tained four  of  these  prominent  paintings,  in  case  there  was  no 
door  at  the  middle  of  one  of  the  sides  ;  if  a  door  interfered, 
there  were  only  three. 

Paintings  were  also  placed  in  the  divisions  of  the  wall  at  the 
right  and  the  left  of  the  central  panel.  In  Plate  XII  we  noticed 
a  single  figure  on  either  side  of  the  pavilion,  but  such  additions 
are  rare  in  the  second  style.  In  the  third  style  the  side  panels 
are  uniformly  adorned  with  paintings.  In  Fig.  263  the  small 
figure  in  the  middle  of  the  panel  at  the  left  is  a  Cupid  ;  frequently 
a  flying  swan  is  seen,  or  a  landscape  lightly  sketched  in  mono- 
chrome on  the  ground  of  the  panel.  Sometimes  the  painting  is 
set  off  by  a  separate  frame  ;  if  this  is  round,  a  bust  is  usually 
represented.  Groups  of  two  figures  were  preferred  for  the  side 
panels  of  the  fourth  style,  the  favorite  subject  being  a  satyr  and 
a  bacchante,  as  in  Fig.  265  ;  these  sometimes  appear  as  busts, 
but  are  more  often  represented  as  floating  figures. 

Characteristic  of  the  fourth  style,  in  respect  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  paintings,  is  the  use  of  single  figures  and  simple  com- 
positions to  add  life  to  the  fantastic  architectural  designs  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  wall  and  in  the  divisions  between  the  large 
panels.  Here  we  may  see  satyrs  and  bacchantes,  young  girls 
and  solemn-visaged  men  with  implements  of  sacrifice ;  the 
figures  appear  in  great  variety  of  type  and  subject.  Some- 
times groups  are  broken  up,  and  the  elements  of  a  mythological 
scene,  as  that  of  Admetus  and  Alcestis,  are  distributed  as  single 
figures  in  the  architectural  framework. 

At  the  time  of  the  eruption  the  fondness  for  pictorial  repre- 
sentations was  increasing,  and  they  were  being  introduced  into 
every  part  of  the  decoration,  including  the  frieze  of  the  main 
part  of  the  wall,  the  use  of  which  in  this  way  commenced  in 
the  time  of  the  third  style  (Fig.  263),  and  the  stripe  below, 
between  the   main  part  of  the  wall  and  the  base  (Fig.  265); 


474 


POMPEII 


how  elaborate  this  intermediate   decoration  might  become  we 
have  already  seen  in  the  case  of  the  house  of  the  Vettii. 

Frequently  in  the  fourth  style  the  lower  part  of  the  archi- 
tectural framework  separating  two  large  panels  appears  to  be 
closed,  as  in  Plate  XIII,  by  a  narrow  panel,  above  which  a 
painting  is  seen.  The  pictures  found  in  these  places  often 
represent  still  life.  Seafights  are  also  a  favorite  subject ;  such 
may  be  seen  in  the  temple  of  Isis,  the  Macellum,  and  one  of  the 
rooms  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii.  Generally  on  the  walls  of 
the  fourth  style,  wherever  there  is  available  space,  we  find  small 
pictures  in  great  variety,  the  most  common  being  landscapes, 
simply  painted,  with  the  use  of  few  colors. 

It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  make  a  satisfactory  classification  of 
Pompeian  paintings  according  to  subject.  Nevertheless,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  they  may  be  roughly  grouped  in  four  general 
classes,  mythological  paintings,  genre  paintings,  landscapes,  and 
still  life.  Most  of  the  large  and  important  pictures  belong  to 
the   first  class.     The   mythological  paintings  will  therefore  be 

discussed  at  somewhat 
greater  length  ;  the 
other  three  classes  will 
require  only  a  brief 
characterization. 

The  still-life  paint- 
ings represent  all  kinds 
of  meat,  fish,  fowl,  and 
fruits.  According  to 
Vitruvius,  this  kind  of 
picture  was  called  Xe- 
nion.  The  reason  given 
for  the  name  recalls  a  curious  custom  of  ancient  Greece.  When 
a  guest,  xenos,  was  received  into  a  Greek  home,  says  this  writer, 
he  was  invited  to  sit  at  the  table  for  one  day.  After  that  pro- 
visions were  furnished  to  him  uncooked,  and  he  prepared  his 
own  meals.  A  portion  of  unprepared  victuals  thus  came  to  be 
called  xenion,  '  the  stranger's  portion,'  and  the  name  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  pictures  in  which  such  provisions  appear. 
A  fruit  piece,  now  in  the  Naples  Museum,  is  shown  in  Fig.  266. 


266. —  A  fruit  piece,  Xenion. 


THE    PAINTINGS 


475 


Landscapes  are  numerous  and  of  all  sizes.  Occasionally  a 
garden  wall  of  the  fourth  style  is  covered  with  a  single  large 
painting,  in  which  villas,  gardens,  roads,  and  harbors  are  real- 
istically presented.  Such  pictures  are  of  Italian  origin ;  the 
name  of  the  artist  who  first  painted  them  is  probably  Sextus 
Tadius,  but  the  reading  of  the  passage  in  which  the  name 
occurs  (Plin.  N.  H.  XXXV.  x.  ii6)  is  uncertain. 

Common  to  the  third  and  fourth  styles  are  garden  scenes,  in 
which,  behind  a  light  barrier,  the  plants  of  a  garden  appear, 
with  birds,  statues,  and  fountains.  The  finest  extant  example  is 
in  the  villa  of  Livia,  at  Prima  Porta,  near  Rome. 


-A  landscape  paintm 


Large  landscapes  sometimes  have  a  place  in  the  principal 
panels  oflthe^wllls.  These  are  all  of  Hellenistic  origin,  and 
are  found  almost  without  exception  in  the  decoration  of  the 
third  style.  They  generally  represent  a  quiet  nook  of  wood- 
land, with  high  chffs;  in  the  foreground  is  a  shrine  — perhaps 
more  than  one  —  with  figures  of  men  sacrificing  or  coming  to 
offer  worship. 

The  great  majority  of  the  landscapes,  however,  are  introduced 
into  various  parts  of  the  decoration  outside  of  the  large  panels, 
and  are  quite  small.  In  them  we  see  little  shrines  or  villas  by 
the  seaside ;  a  river  with  a  bridge  on  which  a  traveller  appears 
crossing  the  stream;  or  buildings  on  an  island  or  peninsula  in 
the  edge  of  a  body  of  water,  as  in   Fig.  267.     Often  they  are 


47' 


POMPEII 


simply  light  sketches;  now  and  then  one  of  these  small  land- 
scapes is  painted  in  a  peculiar  tint,  as  if  the  scene  were  repre- 
sented by  moonlight. 

The  genre  paintings  are  of  special  importance  on  account  of 
the  light  they  shed  on  the  life  and  customs  of  the  ancients.  A 
number  have  already  been  described  or  illustrated  in  the  chapter 


Fig.  268.  —  Group  of  women,  one  of  whom  is  sounding  two  stringed  instruments. 


Vv 


on  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  and  in  the  part  devoted  to  the  trades 
and  occupations.  To  these  we  should  add  the  picture  of  an 
artist  in  the  house  of  the  Surgeon  (Fig.  t^.^  and  the  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  Forum  (Figs.  16,  17). 

Here  belong  also  the  groups  in  which  figures  are  seen  with 
a  roll  of  papyrus  or  a  writing  tablet,  suggestive  of  literary  pur- 
suits, and  figures  with  musical  instruments.      A  group  of  mu- 


THE    PAINTINGS 


477 


sicians  is  shown  in  Fig.  268,  in  which  are  four  women,  one  of 
whom  is  tuning  a  couple  of  stringed  instruments  to  sound  in 
unison. 

In  the  same  class  are  included  two  small  painted  busts  not 
infrequently  met  with,  that  of  a  girl  with  a  writing  tablet  in  her 
left  hand  holding  the  end  of  a  stylus  against  her  lips,  as  if 
pondering  what  to  write,  and  that  of  a  young  man  with  one  end 


of  a  roll  of  papyrus,  in  which  he  has  been  reading,  under  his 
chin.  A  Pompeian  baker,  Publius  Faquius  Proculus,  brought 
these  two  ideal  busts  into  one  painting,  substituting  for  the 
faces  of  the  youth  and  maiden  those  of  himself  and  his  wife 
(Fig.  269).  The  portraits  are  realistic,  but  the  faces  are  not 
unattractive  ;  that  of  Proculus  seems  more  kindly  and  ingenuous 
than  the  face  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  (Fig.  256). 

Two  ideal  painted  busts  have  recently  been  found,  each  of  a 
youth  with  a  roll  of  papyrus.     Their  chief  interest  lies  in  the 


478  POMPEII 

fact  that  each  roll  is  provided  with  a  narrow  tag  or  label,  of  the 
sort  that  the  Romans  called  index,  on  which  the  names  Plato 
and  Hojfients  can  be  plainly  read.  The  two  types  of  face  well 
correspond  with  the  trend  of  taste  suggested  by  the  titles :  the 
delicate  features  and  upturned  gaze  of  the  one  indicate  a  poetic 
temperament ;  the  other  has  a  high  forehead  and  an  air  of 
meditation,  appropriate  for  a  student  of  philosophy. 

The  mythological  paintings  rarely  present  rapid  movement. 
To  the  few  exceptions  belong  the  two  familiar  pictures  placed 
opposite  each  other  in  the  tablinum  of  the  house  of  Castor 
and  Pollux,  Achilles  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes  on 
the  island  of  Scyros,  and  the  quarrel  between  Achilles  and 
Agamemnon.  Only  part  of  the  latter  painting  is  preserved, 
but  both  are  strong  compositions,  and  are  repeated  on  other 
walls. 

Scenes  of  combat,  the  interest  of  which  lies  in  the  display  of 
physical  force,  are  still  more  infrequently  met  with,  and  seem 
out  of  harmony  with  the  prevailing  taste.  Two  pictures  from 
Herculaneum  represent  Hercules  putting  forth  his  strength ;  in 
one  he  is  struggling  with  the  Nemean  lion,  in  the  other  carrying 
the  Erymanthian  boar.  The  few  paintings  of  this  kind  at 
Pompeii  are  badly  preserved.  In  two  of  them  Meleager  ap- 
pears, engaged  in  combat  with  the  boar ;  in  another  we  see 
Achilles  before  the  walls  of  Troy  with  drawn  sword  in  one 
hand,  with  the  other  grasping  by  the  hair  Troilus,  an  effemi- 
nate Trojan  youth,  attired  in  Oriental  fashion,  who  mounted 
on  his  horse  is  vainly  trying  to  escape ;  a  fourth  represents 
a  combat  between  a  heavy-armed  warrior  and  an  Amazon. 
But  such  paintings  are  the  more  conspicuous  by  reason  of  their 
rarity,  and  those  that  have  thus  far  been  discovered  are  all 
found  upon  walls  of  the  third  style. 

A  much  larger  number  of  mythological  compositions  repre- 
sent a  moment  of  dramatic  interest,  the  artist  relying  for  his 
effect  upon  the  bearing  and  facial  expression  of  the  persons 
appearing  in  the  scene.  The  interest  is  purely  psychological, 
and  several  of  the  pictures  that  have  been  preserved  give  us  an 
exceedingly  favorable  idea  of  the  ability  of  ancient  painters  to 
express  emotion,  especially  when  we  remember  that  these  paint- 


']"HE    PAINTINCIS 


479 


ings  are  merely  decorative  copies  of  masterpieces  the  originals 
of  which  in  most  cases  had  probably  never  been  seen  by  the 
workmen  who  painted  the  copies  on  the  walls. 

Among  the  more  familiar  examples  is  the  face  of  Orestes  in 
the  painting  found  in  the  house  of  the  Citharist  (Fig.  182),  and 
that  of  lo,  watched  by  Argus,  in  the  Macellum.  Emotion  is 
expressed  with  even  greater  skill  in  the  face  of  lo  in  a  painting 
of  the  temple  of  Isis.  The  goddess  welcomes  the  wanderer  to 
r^gypt  after  her  long  season  of  suffering ;  the  traces  of  the  suf- 
fering are  clearly  seen,  yet  are  illumined  by  the  ineffable  and 
serene  joy  of  final  deliverance. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  ancient  painting  is 
a  fragment,  badly  preserved,  in  the  tablinum  of  the  house  of 
Caecilius  Jucundus.  The 
composition  probably  rep- 
resented Priam  turning- 
back  toward  Troy  with 
the  body  of  Hector,  which 
he  had  just  ransomed.  In 
the  fragment,  shown  in 
Fig.  270,  we  see  the  aged 
Hecuba,  together  with  a 
daughter  or  maidservant, 
looking  with  unutterable 
anguish  from  an  upper 
window  down  upon  the 
scene.     The    gray-haired 

queen,  whose  features  still  retain  much  of  their  youthful  beauty, 
gazes  upon  the  dust-stained  body  of  her  son  with  grief  too  deep 
for  tears. 

In  the  majority  of  paintings  the  subjects  of  which  are  taken 
from  myths  the  characters  are  represented  either  in  a  relation  of 
rest,  not  suggestive  of  intense  emotion,  or  in  a  lasting  situation 
of  dramatic  interest,  which  is  devoid  of  momentary  excitement 
and  does  not  suggest  the  display  of  evanescent  feeling.  The 
situation  is  sometimes  cheerful,  sometimes  calculated  to  arouse 
sympathy ;  if  the  characters  were  not  mythological,  the  scenes 
might  pass  for  those  of  everyday  life.     Thus  we  see  Narcissus 


Fig.  270,—  Hecuba  with  a  younger  companion 
looking  from  an  upper  window  'as  Priam  brings 
back  the  body  of  Hector. 


26 


4^0  POMPEII 

looking  at  the  reflection  of  his  face  in  a  clear  spring  in  the  for- 
est ;  Polyphemus,  on  the  seashore,  receiving  from  the  hands  of 
a  Cupid  a  letter  sent  by  Galatea ;  and  Apollo  playing  on  the  lyre 
for  Admetus,  while  the  herd  grazes  around  him. 

To  the  same  series  of  cheerful  or  idyllic  pictures  belong  the 
Selene  hovering  over  the  sleeping  Endymion  ;  Paris  and  Oenone 
on  Mt.  Ida,  Paris  cutting  the  name  of  his  sweetheart  in  the  bark 
of  a  tree  ;  and  Perseus  with  Andromeda  looking  at  the  reflection 
of  the  head  of  Medusa  in  a  pool.  With  these  we  may  class 
also  the  representations  of  Bacchus  as  he  moves  along  with  his 
rollicking  band  and  suddenly  comes  upon  the  sleeping  Ariadne ; 
and  Hercules  with  Omphale,  sometimes  sitting  in  woman's  attire 
beside  her  and  spinning,  sometimes  staggering  in  his  cups  or 
lying  drunk  upon  the  ground  while  she  stands  or  sits  near  him. 

Examples  of  a  pathetic  situation  are  equally  abundant.  We 
find  Aphrodite  caring  for  the  wounded  Adonis,  and  Cyparissus 
grieving  over  the  dead  stag.  The  pathos  of  the  scene,  however, 
is  not  always  so  obviously  suggested.  The  familiar  painting  of 
Europa  represe«ts  the  maiden  playfully  sitting  upon  the  bull, 
which  one  of  her  girlish  companions  is  caressing.  The  situa- 
tion, from  one  point  of  view,  is  idyllic,  yet  it  brings  to  mind  the 
unhappy  fate  of  the  girl,  borne  far  away  from  home  over  the 
sea  to  a  distant  land,  and  the  effect  is  heightened  by  giving 
her  a  wonderfully  beautiful  form. 

Not  infrequently  a  similar  result  is  produced  by  placing  figures 
of  incongruous  type  in  sharp  contrast ;  so  in  the  oft-repeated 
composition  in  which  the  beautiful  Thetis  in  elegant  attire  sits 
in  the  workshop  of  Hephaestus,  looking  at  the  shield  which  the 
rough  and  grimy  smith  is  finishing  for  Achilles.  In  another 
composition  Pasiphae  is  seen  in  the  shop  of  Daedalus,  who 
points  out  the  wooden  cow ;  and  a  similar  idea  of  contrast  must 
have  been  present  in  the  mind  of  the  artist  who  painted  Danae 
after  she  had  been  cast  ashore  in  a  chest  on  the  island  of  Seri- 
phus,  sitting  on  the  beach  with  little  Perseus  in  her  lap,  while 
two  fishermen  standing  near  make  inquiry  concerning  her  strange 
fate. 

The  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  paintings  in  a  Pompeian 
room  can   hardly  have   failed    to   influence   the  choice  of  com- 


THE    PAINTINGS  481 

positions  for  the  principal  panels,  especially  in  cases  in  which 
mythological  scenes  were  to  be  represented.  Sometimes,  though 
not  so  frequently  as  might  have  been  expected,  pictures  were 
grouped  according  to  subject.  We  have  already  noticed  the 
relation  of  two  paintings,  in  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux, 
in  which  Achilles  is  the  principal  figure.  The  first  of  these, 
Achilles  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes,  is  found  in  a  room 
of  another  house  in  a  group  of  three ;  one  of  the  companion 
pieces  represents  Thetis  in  the  smithy  of  Hephaestus  looking 
at  the  weapons  which  are  being  made  for  Achilles,  while  in  the 
other  she  is  seen  riding  o\^er  the  sea  on  a  Triton,  bringing  them 
to  her  son.  There  is  another  group  of  three  pictures  related  by 
subject  in  a  room  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii ;  they  belong  to  the 
Theban  cycle,  and  represent  the  infant  Hercules  strangling  the 
serpents,  the  death  of  Pentheus,  and  the  binding  of  Dirce. 

Similarity  of  scene  and  of  treatment  influenced  the  selection 
of  paintings  for  a  room  much  more  often  than  unity  of  subject. 
A  good  illustration  is  the  pair  of  pictures  several  times  found 
together,  one  of  which  represents  Polyphemus  on  the  beach 
receiving  from  a  Cupid  a  letter  written  by  Galatea ;  in  the  other 
Aphrodite  is  seen  on  the  seashore  fishing,  with  Cupids  all  about 
her.  The  suggestion  of  Love  is  common  to  both  paintings,  but 
the  juxtaposition  of  the  two  as  counterparts  is  due  to  the  simi- 
larity of  scene.  Opposite  the  picture  of  Europa  referred  to 
above,  is  a  Pan  playing  on  his  pipe,  with  nymphs  around  him ; 
the  two  pictures,  which  appear  in  a  room  of  the  third  style,  from 
the  decorative  point  of  view  form  an  effective  pair. 

A  sleeping  room  of  the  same  style  — ^  though  in  respect  to 
grouping  no  difference  between  the  styles  is  apparent  —  offers 
an  interesting  example  of  a  double  group.  The  four  principal 
paintings  form  two  pairs.  In  one  pair  w^e  see,  on  one  side, 
Hercules  in  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides  approaching  an  altar 
around  which  three  maidens  are  standing  ;  on  the  other,  a  shrine 
of  Artemis  in  a  forest  with  three  worshippers  drawing  near,  one 
of  whom  brings  a  garland.  The  two  pictures  harmonize  in  the 
character  of  the  scenery  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  figures. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  other  pair  as  a  decorative  counter- 
part can  be  seen  in  our  illustrations ;  the  subject  of  one  of  the 


482 


POMPEII 


paintings   is  the  fate  of  the    pipes    which  Athena   cast    aside 
(Fig.  271),  and  of  the  other  the  fall  of  Icarus  (Fig.  272). 

In  the  first  of  the  two  pictures  we  have  one  of  the  few  extant 
examples  of  a  kind   of  painting  associated  with  the  name  of 

Philostratus,  in 
which  different 
scenes  representing 
the  successive  stages 
of  an  action  are 
united  in  one  compo- 
sition. 

In  the  foreground 
at  the  left  sits 
Athena,  with  her 
shield  on  the  ground 
beside  her,  playing 
the  double  pipe ;  a 
nymph  in  front  ris- 
ing from  the  surface 
of  a  stream  holds  up 
a  mirror  in  which  the 
goddess  may  see  her 
face  reflected  as  she 
plays. 

The  next  two 
scenes  lie  just  across 
the  brook.  At  the 
foot  of  the  cHff  sits 
the  divinity  of  the 
country,  Phrygia,  in 
which  the  story  of 
Marsyas  is  localized. 
Above,  at  the  left,  v/e  see  the  satyr  with  a  shepherd's  crook  in 
his  left  hand  blowing  a  Pan's  pipe  ;  he  has  not  yet  espied  the 
pipes  thrown  away  by  Athena. 

At  the  right  he  appears  again,  near  the  tree,  having  found 
the  pipes  discarded  by  the  goddess  and  picked  them  up.  Lastly, 
in  the  middle  of  the  background,  we  see  him  playing  the  pipes 


Fig.  27T.  —  Amena's  pipes  and  the  I'ate  ol  Marsyas. 


THE    PAINTINGS 


483 


in  the  presence  of   the   Muses,  who  are  serving  as  judges  in 
the  contest  of  skill  between  the  satyr  and  Apollo. 

The  final  scene  with  the  flaying  of  Marsyas,  which  was 
sometimes  represented  in  sculpture,  and  appears  also  in  several 
Pompeian  paintings, 
is  here  omitted. 

The  inner  connec- 
tion of  the  other  pic- 
ture is  not  so  clear. 
It  is  perhaps  a  con- 
fused form  of  a 
composition  in 
which  Icarus,  lying 
on  the  ground  after 
his  fall,  was  the  cen- 
tral figure ;  the  local 
divinities  and  na- 
tives of  the  region 
were  looking  upon 
the  body  of  the  hap- 
less youth  with  pity ; 
while  Daedalus, 
hovering  in  the  air 
above,  was  trying  to 
find  the  spot  where 
he  had  fallen. 

Our  artist,  how- 
ever, thinking  to 
heighten  the  effect, 
represented  Icarus 
as  plunging  head- 
long through  the  air, 
with  the  result  shown  in  the  illustration  ;  neither  Daedalus  nor 
the  figures  in  the  foreground  seem  yet  to  have  become  aware  of 
the  catastrophe. 

We  can  in  no  way  more  appropriately  bring  to  a  close  our 
brief  survey  of  the  Pompeian  paintings  than  by  presenting  a 
reproduction  of  the  scene  in  which  Zeus  and  Hera  appear  on 


Fig.  272.  —  The  fall  of  Icarus. 


(r'-) 


484 


POMPEII 


Mt.    Ida  (Fie:.   273).      This  painting  has  been  sufficiently  dis- 
cussed in  another  connection  (pp.  316-317);  though  preserved 


Fig.  273.  —  Zeus  and  Hera  on  Mt.  Ida.     Wall  painting  from  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 


in  a  damaged  condition,  it  clearly  represents  an  original  of  no 
slight  merit. 


PART   VI 

THE   INSCRIPTIONS   OF   POMPEII 
CHAPTER    LVI 

IMPORTANCE   OF  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.  —  MONUMENTAL 
INSCRIPTIONS  AND  PUBLIC  NOTICES 

The  inscriptions  discovered  at  Pompeii  number  more  than 
six  thousand.  They  cover  a  wide  field,  ranging  from  com- 
memorative tablets  put  up  at  public  expense  to  the  scribblings 
of  idlers  upon  the  plastered  walls.  It  would  be  an  exaggeration 
to  say  that  they  contribute  to  our  knowledge  of  antiquity  much 
that  is  new ;  their  value  lies  rather  in  the  insight  which  they 
give  into  the  life  of  the  city  and  its  people. 

In  one  respect  the  evidence  derived  from  inscriptions,  though 
often  of  the  most  fragmentary  character,  is  especially  satisfac- 
tory. We  feel  that  we  are  handling  original  documents,  without 
the  intervention  of  that  succession  of  copyists  which  stands 
between  the  author  of  a  Greek  or  Roman  masterpiece  and  the 
modern  reader.  The  shapes  of  the  letters  and  the  spelling  are 
just  as  they  were  left  by  the  stonecutter  or  the  scribbler;  the 
various  handwritings  can  still  be  as  plainly  distinguished  on  the 
charred  tablets  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  as  though  the  signatures 
were  witnessed  only  yesterday.  Through  the  inscriptions  we 
are  brought  into  contact  with  the  personality  of  the  Pompeians 
as  in  no  other  way. 

The  inscriptions  may  be  classified  either  according  to  the 
subject  matter  or  according  to  the  form  in  which  they  appear, 
whether  cut  in  stone,  or  painted,  or  scratched  upon  a  smooth 
surface  with  a  stylus.  No  detailed  classification  need  be  given 
here  ;  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purposes  to  discuss  the  main 
divisions  briefly  under  four  heads, —  monumental  inscriptions  and 

4«5 


486  POMPEII 

public   notices,    graffiti,    and   inscriptions    relating    to   business 
affairs. 

Monumental  inscriptions  include  those  which  are  cut  in  hard 
material  and  are  intended  to  be  read  by  all  who  see  them. 
They  are  found  at  Pompeii  chiefly  in  or  upon  public  buildings, 
on  pedestals  of  statues  and  on  sepulchral  monuments.  They 
are  characterized  by  extreme  brevity.  A  few  are  in  the  Oscan 
language,  the  rest  are  in  Latin.  The  more  important  examples 
have  been  presented  in  the  preceding  pages  in  connection  with 
the  monuments  to  which  they  belong.  A  list  of  them  is  given 
in  the  Index  under  "  Inscriptions." 

The  public  notices  are  painted  upon  the  walls  along  the  sides 
of  the  streets,  ordinarily  in  a  bright  red  color ;  a  few  are  in 
black.  The  most  important  are  the  election  notices,  in  which 
a  candidate  is  recommended  for  a  public  office.  These  are 
about  sixteen  hundred  in  number,  and  the  names  of  more  than 
a  hundred  different  candidates  appear  in  them. 

The  election  notices  fall  into  two  classes,  distinguished  both 
by  the  style  of  writing  and  by  the  manner  of  expression,  — 
earlier,  from  the  time  of  the  Republic,  and  later,  belonging  to 
the  Imperial  period.  The  shapes  of  the  letters  in  those  of  the 
former  class  are  irregular,  and  bear  the  mark  of  an  unpractised 
hand.  The  later  notices,  on  the  contrary,  have  a  more  finished 
appearance ;  they  are  executed  in  a  kind  of  calligraphic  style 
that  suggests  the  employment  of  skilled  clerks  who  made  the 
painting  of  electoral  recommendations  a  part  of  their  business. 
We  have  already  met  with  the  name  of  one  painter  of  notices 
who  signed  his  work,  Aemilius  Celer  (p.  223).  His  house  has 
been  discovered,  near  the  northeast  corner  of  the  ninth  Region ; 
it  was  identified  by  means  of  an  inscription  painted  on  the  out- 
side :  Aemilius  Celer  hie  habitat,  —  '  Aemilius  Celer  lives  here.' 

The  language  of  the  earlier  recommendations  is  of  the  sim- 
plest. We  find  the  name  of  the  candidate  with  no  suggestion 
of  praise  excepting  occasionally  the  letters  v.  b.,  for  virmn 
bontim,  'good  man.'  The  name  of  the  office  is  given  in  an 
abbreviated  form,  but  that  of  the  person  who  makes  the  recom- 
mendation nowhere  appears.     In  one  example  the  elements  of 


PUBLIC    NOTICES  487 

the  common  formula  0.  v.f.,  for  oro  vos,  facite,  are  given  almost 
in  full:  M.  Mariitm  acd.faci.,  oro  vos,  —  'Make  Marcus  Marius 
aedile,  I  beg  of  you.'  The  following  notice  appears  on  Stabian 
Street  in  letters  nearly  8  inches  high  :  P  •  FVR  •  II  •  V  •  \B  •  0  •  \F, 
that  is  Pnblinni  Furiinn  dumnviruni,  vinim  boniu/i,  oro  vos, 
facitc,  —  'Make  Publius  Furius  duumvir,  I  beg  of  you;  he's  a 
good  man.' 

Some  of  the  later  election  notices  are  almost  equally  brief, 
presenting  merely  the  name  of  the  candidate,  the  office  for 
which  he  is  recommended,  and  the  formula  0.  v.  f.,  as  in  this 
instance  :  Hcrennium  Celsitm  aed\ilem'\  o.  v.f.,  —  '  Make  Heren- 
nius  Celsus  aedile,  I  beg  of  you.'  Occasionally  even  the  formula 
is  omitted,  and  we  have  simply  the  name  of  the  candidate  and 
of  the  office,  both  invariably  in  the  accusative  case,  as  Caselliiiiii 
acd.,  which  appears  in  several  places,  and  M.  Holcojiiuin  Pris- 
aiin  II.  vir.  i.  d. 

More  frequently  the  recommendation  includes  a  reference  to 
the  good  qualities  of  the  candidate.  Sometimes  he  is  simply 
styled  'a  good  man,'  as  in  the  earlier  notices;  but  the  most 
common  formula  in  this  connection  is  d.  r.  p.,  for  dig7iiini  re 
publica,  'worthy  of  public  office.'  In  some  instances  the  char- 
acterization is  more  definite.  More  than  one  candidate  is 
affirmed  to  be  'an  upright  young  man'  {iuvcncni  probum),  or 
'a  youth  of  singular  modesty'  {vercciuidissimnin  iuvenem).  In 
regard  to  one  aspirant  for  office  we  are  informed  that  '  he  will 
be  the  watch-dog  of  the  treasury  '  —  hie  acrarium  conscrvabit. 

The  names  of  those  who  make  the  recommendations  often 
appear  in  the  later  notices.  Now  and  then  individuals  assume 
the  responsibility,  as  Vesonius  Primus  (p.  396),  and  Acceptus 
and  Euhodia  (p.  341),  who  were  undoubtedly  owners  of  the 
property  on  which  the  notices  appear.  Thus  the  candidate's 
neighbors  are  sometimes  represented  as  favoring  his  election,  as 
in  the  case  of  Claudius  Verus  :  Ti.  Clandiiivi  Vcriini  II.  vir. 
vicini  rogant,  —  '  His  neighbors  request  the  election  of  Tiberius 
Claudius  Verus  as  duumvir.'  Electoral  recommendations  are 
painted  on  all  sides  of  the  house  of  Verus  —  the  extensive  estab- 
lishment in  the  ninth  Region  known  as  the  house  of  the  Centenary. 

The  class  of  election  notices  in  which  we  find  the  members  of 


488  POMPEII 

a  craft  united  in  the  support  of  a  candidate  has  been  sufficiently- 
illustrated  in  another  connection  (p.  384).  To  these  we  may 
add  a  recommendation  found  on  a  wall  facing  the  temple  of 
Isis  :  Cn.  Hclviimi  Sabinum  aed.  Isiaci  univcrsi  rog\ji7it\, — '  The 
worshippers  of  Isis,  as  a  body,  request  the  election  of  Gnaeus 
Helvius  Sabinus  as  aedile.'  A  suburb  also  might  have  a  candi- 
date, as  in  the  following  instance  :  M.  Epidium  Sabimim  aed. 
Campanienscs  rog.,  —  '  The  inhabitants  of  the  Pagus  Campanus 
ask  for  the  election  of  Marcus  Epidius  Sabinus  as  aedile.' 

Sometimes  all  those  who  are  engaged  in  an  occupation  are 
urged  to  support  a  candidate.  '  Innkeepers,  make  Sallustius 
Capito  aedile,'  we  read  in  one  notice.  In  others,  various  classes 
of  citizens  having  a  common  bond,  as  the  ballplayers,  and  the 
dealers  in  perfumes,  are  exhorted  to  work  for  the  election  of  a 
candidate  presumably  favorable  to  their  interests.  In  one  in- 
stance there  is  a  direct  appeal  to  an  individual,  involving  a 
pledge  of  future  support :  Sabinum  acd\ilc)n\  Proculc,  fac,  et 
ille  te  faciei,  —  '  Proculus,  make  Sabinus  aedile,  and  he  will  do 
as  much  for  you.' 

In  view  of  the  deep  interest  in  the  municipal  elections,  re- 
vealed by  these  notices,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  the 
support  of  a  candidate  by  a  man  of  unusual  prominence  was 
extensively  advertised.  In  three  different  parts  of  the  city  the 
attention  of  voters  was  directed  to  the  fact  that  Suedius  Clemens, 
the  commissioner  sent  by  Vespasian  to  decide  the  ownership  of 
certain  plots  of  ground  (p.  407),  favored  the  election  of  Epidius 
Sabinus  as  duumvir.  One  of  the  notices  reads  :  M.  Epidium 
Sabiuum  II.  vir.  iur.  die.  0.  v.  /,  dignum  iuvenem,  Suedius 
Clemens  sanctissimus  index  facit  vieinis  jvgantibus,  —  '  At  the 
request  of  the  neighbors,  Suedius  Clemens,  most  upright  judge,  is 
working  for  the  election  of  Marcus  Epidius  Sabinus,  a  worthy 
young  man,  as  duumvir  with  judiciary  authority.  He  begs  of 
you  to  elect  this  candidate.' 

So  public  a  method  of  pressing  a  candidacy  put  a  formidable 
weapon  into  the  hands  of  the  candidate's  enemies,  and  the  form 
of  a  recommendation  was  sometimes  used  against  an  offi'  " 
seeker  with  telling  effect.  Vatiam  aed.  furunculi  rog.,  —  '  T*he 
sneak  thieves  request  the  election  of  Vatia  as  aedile,'  we  find 


PUBLIC    NOTICES  489 

conspicuously  painted  on  a  wall  on  Augustales  Street.  Accord- 
ing to  other  notices  near  by,  '  The  whole  company  of  late 
drinkers '  {scribibi  nniversi)  and  '  all  the  people  who  are  asleep  ' 
{^donnicntcs  nniversi)  favored  the  candidacy  of  the  same  un- 
happy Vatia.  The  last  notice  which  we  shall  present  in  this 
connection  may  have  been  painted  on  the  order  of  the  girl  who 
appears  in  it:  Clandinvi  II.  vir.  anininla  facit, — 'His  little 
sweetheart  is  working  for  the  election  of  Claudius  as  duumvir.' 
The  reference  is  probably  to  the  Tiberius  Claudius  Verus  men- 
tioned above. 

The  other  kinds  of  public  notices  are  represented  by  rela- 
tively few  examples.  Of  special  interest  are  the  announcements 
of  gladiatorial  combats,  which  were  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter  (p.  221 ).  Next  in  importance  are  perhaps  the  advertise- 
ments of  buildings  to  rent.  One  of  these,  relating  to  the  Ele- 
phant Inn,  has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  400).  We  present 
here  two  others,  which  have  to  do  with  large  properties.  The 
first,  which  has  now  disappeared,  was  painted  on  a  wall  in  the 
sixth  Region,  at  the  south  end  of  the  third  Insula.  It  reads  as 
follows  :  — 

INSULA    ARRIANA 
POLLIANA    CN.    ALLEI    NIGIDI    MAI 

LOCANTUR  EX  K[alendis]  iulis  primis  tabernae 

CUM    PERGULIS    SUIS    ET    CENACULA 

EQUESTRIA    ET    DOMUS.    CONDUCTOR 

CONVENITO    PRIMUM,    CN.    ALLEI 

NIGIDI    MAI    SER[vum]. 

'To  rent,  from  the  first  day  of  next  July,  shops  with  the  floors 
over  them,  fine  upper  chambers,  and  a  house,  in  the  Arrius 
Pollio  block  owned  by  Gnaeus  Alleius  Nigidius  Mains.  Pro- 
spective lessees  may  apply  to  Primus,  slave  of  Gnaeus  Alleius 
Nigidius  Mains.' 

The  word  eqnestria,  translated  '  fine,'  is  used  colloquially  with 
ccnacnla,  in  the  sense  'fit  for  a  knight.'  The  Insula  named 
after  Arrius  Pollio  was  thought  by  Fiorelli  to  be  the  so-called 
house  of  Pansa,  across  the  street  from  the  block  on  which  the 
advertisement  was  found.     The   identification  may  be  correct, 


490  POMPEII 

but  a  notice  painted  in  so  prominent  a  place  might  refer  to  a 
block  in  any  part  of  the  city. 

The  following  inscription  was  found  in  the  last  century  near 
the  Amphitheatre,  on  a  wall  of  the  extensive  establishment 
named  from  it  the  villa  of  Julia  Felix:  — 

IN    PRAEDIS    lULIAE    SP.    F.    FELICIS 
LOCANTUR 

BALNEUM    VENERIUM    ET    NONGENTUM.    TABERNAE.    PERGULAE. 

CENACULA    EX    IDIBU5    AUG.    PRIMIS    IN    IDUS    AUG.    SEXTAS,    ANNOS 
CONTINUOS    QUINQUE 

S.  Q.   D.   L.   E.   N.  C. 

'To  let,  for  the  space  of  five  years,  from  the  thirteenth  day  of 
next  August  to  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  sixth  August  there- 
after, the  Venus  bath,  fitted  up  for  the  best  people,  shops,  rooms 
over  shops,  and  second  story  apartments  in  the  property  owned 
by  Julia  Felix,  daughter  of  Spurius.' 

The  bath  may  have  received  its  name  from  Venus  Pompeiana. 
The  word  nongcntmn  is  difficult  to  understand.  The  interpreta- 
tion given  is  based  upon  a  passage  of  Pliny  the  Elder,  from 
which  we  understand  that  in  colloquial  language  the  knights 
were  known  as  'the  nine  hundred.'  A  bath  'of  the  nine  hun- 
dred '  would  then  be  one  designed  to  attract  the  patronage  of 
the  best  people.  The  seven  letters  at  the  end  of  the  inscription 
have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

Advertisements  of  articles  lost  or  found  are  also  met  with. 
A  notice  in  regard  to  a  stray  horse,  painted  on  one  of  the  tombs 
east  of  the  Amphitheatre,  is  given  on  p.  436.  On  the  east 
side  of  Insula  VIII.  v.-vi.  we  read:  — 

VRNA    AENIA    PEREIT  •  DE  •  TABERNA 

SEIQViS  .   RETTVLERIT      DABVNTVR 

HS    LXV  •  SEI  •  FVREM 
DABIT  .  VND  .  .  . 

'  A  copper  pot  has  been  taken  from  this  shop.  Whoever  brings 
it  back  will  receive  65  sesterces.  If  any  one  shall  hand  over  the 
thief '  .  .  .  (the  rest  of  the  inscription  is  illegible). 


CHAPTER    LVII 

THE   GRAFFITI  . 

The  graffiti  form  the  largest  division  of  the  Pompeian  inscrip- 
tions, comprising  about  three  thousand  examples,  or  one  half  of 
the  entire  number ;  the  name  is  Italian,  being  derived  from  a 
verb  meaning  'to  scratch.'  Writing  upon  walls  was  a  prevalent 
habit  in  antiquity,  as  shown  by  the  remains  of  graffiti  at  Rome 
and  other  places  besides  Pompeii,  a  habit  which  may  be  ac- 
counted for  in  part  by  the  use  of  the  sharp-pointed  stylus  with 
wax  tablets  ;  the  temptation  to  use  such  an  instrument  upon  the 
polished  stucco  was  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of  pens  and 
lead  pencils  upon  the  less  carefully  finished  wall  surfaces  of  our 
time.  Pillars  or  sections  of  wall  are  covered  with  scratches  of 
all  kinds,  —  names,  catchwords  of  favorite  lines  from  the  poets, 
amatory  couplets,  and  rough  sketches,  such  as  a  ship,  or  the 
profile  of  a  face.     The  skit,  occasionally  found  on  walls  to-day, 

'  Fools'  names,  like  their  faces, 
Are  always  seen  in  public  places,' 

has  its  counterpart  in  the  couplet  preserved  as  a  graffito  both 
at  Pompeii  and  at  Rome  :  Admiror,  paries,  te  non  cccidisse  ruinis, 
Qui  tot  scriptoniui  taedia  snstincas,  — 

*  Truly  'tis  wonderful,  Wall,  that  you  have  not  fallen  in  ruins, 
Forced  without  murmur  to  bear  the  taint  of  so  many  hands.' 

Of  a  similar  vein  is  a  Greek  line  scratched  upon  a  wall  on  the 
Palatine  hill  in  Rome :  '  Many  persons  have  here  written  many 
things;  I  alone  refrained  from  writing.' 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  graffiti  are  less  fertile  for  our  knowledge 
of  Pompeian  life  than  might  have  been  expected.  The  people 
with  whom  we  should  most  eagerly  desire  to  come  into  direct  con- 
tact, the  cultivated  men  and  women  of  the  ancient  city,  were 

491 


492  POMPEII 

not  accustomed  to  scratch  their  names  upon  stucco  or  to  confide 
their  reflections  and  experiences  to  the  surface  of  a  wall.  Some 
of  the  graffiti,  to  judge  from  the  height  at  which  we  find  them 
above  the  floor,  were  undoubtedly  made  by  the  hands  of  boys 
and  girls  ;  for  the  rest,  we  may  assume  that  the  writers  were  as 
little  representative  of  the  best  elements  of  society  as  are  the 
tourists  who  scratch  or  carve  their  names  upon  ancient  monu- 
ments to-day.  Nevertheless,  we  gain  from  these  scribblings  a 
lively  idea  of  individual  tastes,  passions,  and  experiences. 

A  few  grai^ti  have  reference  to  events,  as  the  siege  of  Sulla, 
in  89  B.C.  (p.  240).  The  most  interesting  historical  examples 
are  those  which  relate  to  the  conflict  between  the  Pompeians 
and  the  Nucerians,  in  the  year  59  a.d.  (p.  220).  An  ardent 
Pompeian  wrote  :  Nncej'inis  infelicia,  — '  Down  with  the  Nuce- 
rians ! '  From  a  scribbling  by  a  partisan  of  the  other  side  it 
appears  that  the  inhabitants  of  PuteoH  sympathized  with  the 
Nucerians,  while  those  of  Pithecusae  —  the  island  of  Ischia  — 
favored  the  Pompeians  :  Putcolanis  feliciter,  omnibus  Nticherinis 
felicia,  et  7uicu\jti\  Poinpeianis\^et\  Pitecusanis, — 'Hurrah  for 
the  Puteolaneans,  good  luck  to  all  Nucerians ;  a  hook  /or  the 
Pompeians  and  Pithecusans '. "  The  hook  referred  to  in  this 
connection  was  that  used  by  executioners  and  the  attendants  of 
the  Amphitheatre  in  dragging  off  the  dead.  Another  Pompeian 
wrote  :  Canipani,  victoria  una  cnvi  Xiicerinis  peristis,  —  '  Campa- 
nians,  you  were  conquered  by  the  same  victory  with  the  Nu- 
cerians.' The  Campani  were  not  the  inhabitants  of  Campania, 
but  of  the  suburb  called  Pagus  Campanus. 

Two  inscriptions,  attesting  the  presence  of  members  of  the 
Praetorian  Guard  in  Pompeii,  have  been  previously  mentioned 
(pp.  387,  401).  Another  praetorian  left  his  name  in  a  house  of 
the  eighth  Region  (VIII.  iii.  21):  Sex.  Deciniius  Rufus  viilis 
coh\ortis\  V pr\aetoria)iac~\  J  Martia/is,  —  '  Sextus  Decimius 
Rufus,  a  soldier  of  the  fifth  praetorian  cohort,  of  the  century  led 
by  Martialis.'  To  the  same  division  of  the  army  probably  be- 
longed a  centurion  of  the  first  rank,  Q.  Spurennius  Prisons, 
whose  name  was  found  in  a  house  of  the  first  Region  (I.  iii.  3). 
The  first,  fifth,  and  ninth  praetorian  cohorts,  mentioned  in  the 
graffiti,  may  have  come  to  Pompeii  with  different  emperors,  or 


THE    GRAFFITI  493 

on  different  occasions  with  the  same  emperor ;  it  is  unlikely  that 
the  three  were  united  to  form  a  single  escort. 

Graffiti  are  sometimes  useful  for  the  identification  of  build- 
ings ;  so  in  the  case  of  the  Basilica  and  of  several  inns.  The 
dated  examples  throw  some  light  on  the  age  of  the  stucco  on 
which  they  are  found.  They  are  for  the  most  part  late,  and 
afford  little  help  in  determining  the  time  of  commencement  of  the 
various  decorative  styles  ;  but  in  several  cases  they  indicate  a  later 
limit  clearly.  In  this  way  we  learn  that  the  decoration  of  the 
Basilica,  in  the  first  style,  was  finished  before  October  3,  78  B.C. 
—  how  long  before  we  cannot  tell;  and  that  in  37  b.c.  the  plas- 
tering of  the  Small  Theatre  was  already  on  the  walls,  decorated 
in  the  second  style.  The  gladiatorial  graffito  in  the  house  of 
the  Centenary  (p.  226)  proves  that  the  decoration  of  the  room  in 
which  it  is  found  —  a  late  example  of  the  second  style  —  was 
finished  before  November,  a.d.  15.  A  dated  inscription  of  the 
reign  of  Nero  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  house  of  the  Silver 
Wedding  (p.  305). 

Several  hundred  graffiti  present  merely  the  name  of  the  scrib- 
bler, sometimes  with  the  addition  Jiic  fiiit,  —  'was  here,'  or  sim- 
ply hie  ;  as,  Paris  hie  f nit,  Sabiniis  hie. 

A  large  number  contain  a  greeting,  perhaps  in  some  cases 
intended  for  the  eye  of  the  person  mentioned,  as  Acmilins  For- 
tiinato  fratri  salntcm,  — '  Aemilius  greets  his  brother  Fortunatus.' 
In  this  as  in  other  examples  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  one 
brother  is  designated  by  the  gens  name,  the  other  by  the  cogno- 
men. Sometimes  the  greeting  is  the  reverse  of  cordial,  as  in  this 
instance  :  Samius  Cornelio,  snspendere,  —  'Samius  to  Cornelius  : 
go  hang  yourself.'  Hardly  less  naiVe  is  the  message  to  a  friend 
who  has  died  :  Pyrrhus  Chio  eonlegae  sal\^iitem\  :  niolcstc  fciv, 
quod  aiidivi  te  vwrtuom ;  itaq\_?ie'\  vale,  —  'Pyrrhus  to  his 
chum  Chius  :  I'm  sorry  to  hear  that  you  are  dead ;  and  so, 
Good-by.' 

The  most  prominent  theme  of  the  graffiti  is  love,  which  is 
constantly  reappearing,  in  prose  scribblings  and  in  snatches  of 
verse.  The  verse  form  is  usually  the  elegiac  distich.  Some 
of  the  lines  are  taken  from  the  poets  ;  others  were  made  up 
for  the  occasion,  and  not  a  few  verses  were  finished  in  prose. 


494  POMPEII 

as  if  the  would-be  versifier  found  original  composition  more  dif- 
ficult than  he  had  anticipated. 

Several  distichs  extol  the  power  of  love,  as  the  following, 
which,  taken  from  some  unknown  poet,  is  found  in  several 
places  :  Qnisquis  amat,  valeat,  pcreat  qui  ncscit  aniare ;  Bis  tanto 
pereat  qnisquis  amare  vetat :  — 

'  Good  health  be  with  you,  lovers  all ; 

Who  knows  not  how  to  love,  be  cursed ; 
But  oh  may  double  ruin  fall 

On  him  who  sets  out  love  to  worst!  ' 

A  similar  thought  finds  expression  in  a  single  line,  perhaps  also 
a  quotation  :  Nemo  est  bellus  nisi  qni  amavit  mnliereni,  —  *  He 
who  has  never  been  in  love  can  be  no  gentleman.' 

Not  all  the  Pompeians,  however,  viewed  the  matter  so  seri- 
ously. To  the  first  line  of  the  couplet  just  quoted  a  scribbler  of 
a  cynical  turn  in  one  instance  joined  a  parody,  to  the  effect  that 
those  who  are  in  love  may  well  avoid  the  use  of  hot  baths,  on 
the  principle  that  'the  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire,'  —  Nam 
7iemo  jlammas  nstns  amare  potest. 

The  uselessness  of  interference  with  the  course  of  love  is  also 
made  prominent.  In  this  distich,  apparently  from  some  poet, 
the  scribbler  seems  to  have  made  a  slight  change  to  meet  a 
specific  case,  substituting  obiurgat  for  cnstodit  or  some  similar 
word :  Alliget  hie  anras,  si  qnis  obinrgat  amantes,  Et  vetat 
assidnas  cnrrere  /otitis  aqnas,  — 

*  Whoever  has  a  mind 
To  hinder  lovers"  way. 
Let  him  go  zephyrs  bind 
Or  running  waters  stay.' 

Ancient  lovers  nevertheless  had  their  fears,  and  the  follow- 
ing couplet,  which  is  no  doubt  borrowed  from  a  poet,  appears 
also,  in  a  slightly  different  form,  on  a  wall  in  Rome  :  Si  qnis 
forte  vieam  cnpiet  violare  puellam,  Ilium  in  desertis  montibus 

urat  Amor,  — 

'If  any  man  shall  seek 

My  girl  from  me  to  turn, 
On  far-off  mountains  bleak 

May  Love  the  scoundrel  burn.' 


THK    GRAFFITI  495 

Of  extant  elegiac  poets  Ovid,  Propertius,  and  Tibullus  are 
quoted  or  paraphrased.  Among  the  quotations  is  the  familiar 
couplet  of  Propertius  :  Niuic  est  ira  recens,  nunc  est  discedere 
teuipns ;  Si  dolor  afnerit,  crede,  rcdibit  amor, — 

'  Now  is  it  time  to  depart, 

Now  anger  freshly  burns ; 
When  one  ceases  to  feel  the  smart. 
Believe  me,  love  returns." 

If  it  was  written  by  a  lover  after  a  quarrel,  reconciliation  was 
not  far  off.  Another  discouraged  suitor  perhaps  consoled  him- 
self by  writing  on  the  wall  of  the  Basilica  this  distich  from 
Ovid's  "Art  of  Love,"  the  form  of  which  differs  slightly  from 
that  given  in  the  manuscripts  :  Quid  pote  tain  durum  saxso  aut 
quid  mollius  unda  ?     Dura  tamen  mo  Hi  saxsa  cavantur  aqua,  — 

'  What  is  so  hard  as  rock,  or  what  can  be  softer  than  water  ? 
Hard  rocks  nevertheless  by  water  are  worn  away.' 

Amatory  inscriptions  often  have  the  form  of  a  message  or 
greeting  to  a  loved  one,  as  in  this  example  :  Victoria,  vale,  et 
nbique  es,  suaviter  sternutes,  —  '  Health  to  you,  Victoria,  and 
wherever  you  are  may  you  sneeze  sweetly,'  that  is,  may  good 
luck  follow  you.  Often  the  greeting  is  more  ardent,  as  that  to 
Cestilia  :  Cestilia,  regina  Pompeianor2im,  anima  dulcis,  vale,  — 
'  Cestilia,  queen  of  the  Pompeians,  sweet  soul,  greeting  to  you.' 

Sometimes  the  lover  avoided  writing  the  lady's  name  :  Pupa 
quae  bclla  cs,  tibi  me  misit  qui  tuus  est ;  vale,  —  'Maiden  who 
are  so  beautiful,  he  who  is  yours  sent  me  to  you;  good-by.' 
Now  and  then  we  find  an  inscription  of  this  class  that  leaves  an 
unfavorable  impression.  The  following  is  repeated  several  times 
on  the  outside  of  a  house  in  the  first  Region  :  Seirnae  sodales 
sal\^utem^,  —  '  Greeting  to  Serena,  from  her  companions  ! ' 

Spurned  lovers  also  confided  their  woes  to  graffiti,  sometimes 
adding  an  appeal  to  the  obdurate  one,  as  in  this  wretched  coup- 
let, which  can  scarcely  have  been  taken  from  a  poet ;  the  play 
upon  words  in  the  last  clause  was  apparently  intentional :  Si 
quid  amor  valeat  nostei,  sei  te  Jiomineni  scis,  Comviiseresce  mihi, 
da  veniam  ut  veniam,  — 


496  POMPElt 

*  If  you  a  man  would  be,  — 

If  you  know  what  love  can  do,  — 
Have  pity,  and  suffer  me 
With  welcome  to  come  to  you.' 

It  was  probably  a  lover  in  straits  who  scratched  on  the  wall  a 
line  of  the  Aeneid  (IX.  404)  as  a  prayer  to  Venus  :  Tit,  dea,  tu 
praesens  nostro  succurre  labori,  — 

'  Thou,  goddess,  with  thy  present  help 
Our  sore  distress  relieve.' 

Another  unsuccessful  suitor  found  the  lines  of  a  single  poet 
inadequate  to  express  his  feelings,  and  joined  together  a  couplet 
from  Ovid  (Am.  I.  viii.  77-78)  and  one  from  Propertius  (IV.  v, 
47-48)  in  order  to  voice  his  complaint  against  a  miserly  mistress 
who  barred  her  door  upon  all  except  wealthy  lovers.  But  the 
climax  is  reached  in  four  Hues  of  irregular  verse  in  which  the 
rejected  lover  proposes  to  vent  his  anger  on  the  goddess  of 
love  herself  :  '  All  lovers,  come !  I  purpose  to  break  the  ribs  of 
Venus  and  to  smash  the  small  of  her  back  with  clubs ;  if  she  can 
bore  a  hole  in  my  tender  breast,  why  can  I  not  break  her  head 
with  a  cudgel }  '  From  the  psychological  point  of  view  the 
complete  identification  of  the  goddess  with  a  statue  represent- 
ing her  is  noteworthy. 

Occasionally  a  pair  of  lovers  left  on  a  wall  a  record  of  a  meet- 
ing ;  thus,  Roniiila  hie  cian  Staphylo  vwratnr,  — '  Romula  tarried 
here  with  Staphylus.'  Staphylus,  however,  was  apparently  a 
flirt ;  in  the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  a  similar  meeting  wdth 
another  maiden  is  recorded  on  a  column  of  the  peristyle  :  Staphi- 
Ins  hie  eitni  Quieta.  But  Staphylus  does  not  seem  to  have  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  fair  sex  to  the  extent  that  another  Pompeian 
gallant  did,  of  whom  we  find  it  written  :  Rcstitutus  mult  as  dc- 
eepit  sacpe  piiellas,  — '  Restitutus  has  many  times  deceived  many 
girls.' 

The  names  of  husband  and  wife  are  sometimes  joined  together, 
as  in  a  room  of  a  house  in  the  ninth  Region  :  L.  Clodius  Varus, 
Pelagia  eoniiinx ;  there  is  a  similar  example  in  a  house  ruined 
by  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63,  \_Ba'\lbus  et  Fortiinata,  duo 
coinzes. 


THK    CRAPl'lTI 


497 


Wc  find  a  pleasing-  instance  of  marital  affection  in  a  graffito 
in  which  a  lonely  wife  sends  a  greeting  to  an  absent  husband 
and  other  relatives  :  Hirtia  Psacas  C.  Hostilio  Conopi  coiiiugi 
sua  uiaiiudiictori  ct  clciiicuti  iiionitori  ct  Diodoi\a\'  sorori  ct  I'\)r- 
tioiato  fratri  et  Celeri  snis  salutcui  semper  itbique  plnrimaui,  et 
PriDiigciiiac  suae  salutem,  —  '  Hirtia  Psacas  at  all  times  and  in 
all  places  sends  heartiest  greeting  to  Gains  Hostilius  Conops,  her 
husband  and  guide  and  gentle  adviser,  and  to  her  sister  Diodota, 
her  brother  Fortunatus  and  her  Celer ;  and  she  sends  a  greeting 
to  her  Primigenia,  too.'  The  names  of  both  husband  and  wife 
are  GxqqV,  psacas  signifying  'dewdrop,'  and  conops  '  gnat.' 

Many  happenings  are  chronicled  on  the  walls  ;  and  there  are 
memoranda  of  every  description.  The  programmes  of  gladia- 
torial combats  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  223).  One  man 
records  the  result  of  a  trip  to  Nuceria,  where  he  won  at  the 
gaming  table  —  without  cheating,  he  takes  pains  to  add  —  a 
sum  amounting  to  $130:  Vici  Niiceriae  in  alia  (for  ale  a) 
X  DCCCLVS,  fide  bona,  —  *  At  Nuceria,  I  won  855.5  denarii 
by  gaming,  fair  play.' 

Another  Pompeian  counted  the  steps  as  he  walked  up  and 
down  the  colonnade  at  the  side  of  his  garden  (in  the  house  VII. 
ii.  41)  for  exercise;  he  recorded  640  paces  for  ten  turns  back 
and  forth. 

In  the  peristyle  of  a  house  in  the  first  Region  the  advent  of 
young  pigs,  or  of  puppies,  is  noted:  XV  K\jalcndas~\  Nov- 
\cuibrcs'\  Pntcolana  pcperit  inascl\_os^  III,  feniel\_as~\  II,  —  '  On 
October  17  Puteolana  had  a  litter  consisting  of  3  males  and  2 
females.' 

The  inscriptions  relating  to  business  transactions  are  reserved 
for  another  chapter.  We  may  notice  here,  however,  that 
memoranda  of  accounts  were  sometimes  scratched  on  walls, 
usually  containing  only  the  figures  indicating  measure  or  price, 
as  in  the  shops  on  the  south  side  of  the  Macellum.  The  fol- 
lowing is  from  a  bakery  in  the  first  Region  (I.  iii.  27):  Olenin, 
l\ibn'i\,  a\jsibus'\  IV ;  palea  a.  V ;  faenum  a.  XVI ;  diaria  a. 
V ;  fiirfjirc  a.  VI;  viria  Fa.  Ill ;  oleum  a.  VI,  —  'Oil,  a  pound, 
4  asses;  straw,  5  asses;  hay,  16  asses;  a  day's  wages,  5  asses; 
bran,  6  asses;  one  wreath  for  the  neck,  3  asses;  oil,  6  asses.' 


498  POMPKII 

The  value  of  the  as  varied ;  in  the  Early  Empire  it  was  nearly 
equivalent  to  i^  pence,  or  3  cents. 

Children  scratched  upon  walls  the  alphabet  that  they  were 
learning.  The  frequent  quotations  from  Virgil,  generally  in- 
complete, are  likewise  an  echo  of  lessons  at  school,  where  this 
author  was  carefully  studied ;  we  find  very  often  the  beginnings 
of  lines  at  the  opening  of  a  book,  as  Anna  vijiunquc  cano,  or 
Conticiiere  ovines.  The  first  word  of  the  poem  of  Lucretius, 
Aeneadu'in,  also  occurs  several  times. 

Occasionally  gnomic  quotations  are  found,  in  most  cases, 
perhaps,  from  writers  of  comedy.  Among  them  is  the  well- 
known  maxim,  Minivinm  vialnui  fit  contcvincndo  inaxinnum,  — • 
'The  smallest  evil,  if  neglected,  will  reach  the  greatest  propor- 
tions.' A  proverb  more  concrete  in  its  form  of  statement  is  the 
following  :  Movant  si  quaeres,  sparge  iniluim  ct  collige,  — '  If  you 
want  to  waste  your  time,  scatter  millet  and  pick  it  up  again.' 


CHAPTER    LVIII 

INSCRIPTIONS  RELATING    TO   BUSINESS  AFFAIRS 

The  most  important  inscriptions  relating  to  business  transac- 
tions are  the  receipts,  discovered  in  1875,  which  formed  a  part 
of  the  private  accounts  of  L.  Caecilius  Jucundus  (p.  447).  They 
were  written  on  wax  tablets,  which  were  carefully  packed  in  a 
wooden  box.  The  box,  which  was  in  the  second  story  of  the 
house,  crumbled  to  pieces  when  the  volcanic  dust  about  it  was 
removed ;  but  many  of  the  tablets,  1 54  in  number,  still  retained 
their  shape  and  were  taken  to  the  Naples  Museum.  The  wood 
of  the  tablets  had  turned  to  charcoal,  but  the  writing  has  been 
for  the  most  part  deciphered.  One  receipt  dates  from  15  a.d., 
another  from  the  year  27;  the  rest  belong  to  the  decade  imme- 
diately preceding  the  earthquake,  52-62  a.d.  The  documents 
are  of  the  greatest  interest  as  casting  hght  on  the  business 
methods  of  antiquity. 

Most  of  the  tablets  are  triptychs.  The  three  leaves  were  tied 
at  the  back  so  as  to  open  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  making  six 
pages  (Fig.  274).  The  average  height  is  about  5  inches,  the 
width  varies  from  2  to  4  inches.  Pages  i  and  6  served  as 
covers,  being  left  smooth  and  without  writing.  Pages  2,  3,  and 
5  were  hollowed  out,  leaving  a  polished  surface  with  a  raised 
rim  around  it.  On  this  surface  a  thin  layer  of  wax  was  spread, 
in  which  the  letters  were  made  with  a  stylus ;  the  writing  could 
be  easily  read  because  the  wood,  which  was  of  a  light  color, 
showed  through  wherever  a  scratch  was  made  in  the  wax 
coating. 

Two  pages  facing  each  other,  2  and  3,  were  devoted  to  the 
receipt.  Page  4,  as  shown  in  Fig.  275,  was  not  hollowed  out 
but  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  broad,  flat  groove  running 
across  the  middle.  When  the  document  was  ready  to  be  sealed, 
the  first  two  leaves  were  brought  together  and  tied  by  a  thread 

499 


500 


POMPEII 


which  passed  around  the  middle,  the  ends  meeting  in  the  groove 
on  page  4.  In  this  groove  at  convenient  distances  melted  wax 
was  then  dropped,  on  which  the  witnesses,  ordinarily  seven  in 
number,  impressed  their  seals.  The  names  of  the  witnesses 
were  written  with  pen  and  ink  in  a  line  with  the  seals,  parallel 
with  the  sides  of  the  page,  sometimes  at  the  right,  as  in  Fig.  275, 


--  ^ 

'^~i^ 

"^  ^  -C- 

/. 

-^  -^^  z. 

S" 

5K)' 

y 

i' 

Fig.  274.  —  Tablet  with  three  leaves,  opened  so  as  to  show  the  receipt  and  part  of  the 
memorandum  on  page  5,  restored. 


sometimes  divided,  the  first  name  and  the  gens  name  being  at 
the  left  of  the  seal,  the  cognomen  at  the  right. 

This  arrangement  made  it  impossible  to  consult  the  receipt 
without  cutting  the  thread  or  disturbing  the  seals  of  the  wit- 
nesses. To  meet  the  difficulty  a  memorandum,  which  was  prac- 
tically a  dupHcate  receipt,  was  placed  on  page  5  ;  this  could  be 
read  at  any  time. 

The  difference  in  form  between  the  receipt,  on  pages  2  and  3, 
and  the  memorandum  will  be  plain  from  the  examples.  The 
receipt,  with  few  exceptions,  is  simply  a  record  of  an  oral  ac- 


RECEIPTS   OF   CAECILIUS    TUCUNDUS 


5"' 


knowledgment  in  the  j^resence  of  witnesses  that  a  sum  of  money 
was  received,  accept i  latio.  In  nearly  all  the  tablets  this  ac- 
knowledgment and  the  names  of  the  witnesses,  on  page  4,  are 
in  the  same  handwriting,  which  must  have  been  either  that  of 
Jucundus  himself  or  of  his  secretary.  It  did  not  matter  who 
wrote  the  receipt ;  in  case  of  a  dispute  the  seals  of  the  wit- 
nesses would  alone  be  sufficient  to  prove  its  genuineness.  The 
memorandum,    however,    was    ordinarily    in    a  different    hand, 


Fig.  275. 


-Tablet,  restored,  with  the  two  leaves  containing  the  receipt  tied  and  sealed,  and 
with  the  signatures  of  the  witnesses  at  the  right  of  the  seals. 


either  that  of  the  person  who  gave  the  receipt,  or  of  some  one 
authorized  to  write  for  him.  As  it  was  not  under  the  seals  of 
witnesses,  the  handwriting  might  become  a  matter  of  importance 
if  any  question  should  arise  in  regard  to  the  document. 

The  entire  tablet,  with  its  receipt,  memorandum,  and  names 
and  seals  of  witnesses  wa.s  caWed pcj'scn'ptw,  'entry  of  account.' 
This  word  appears  ordinarily  on  the  edge  of  the  tablet,  with  the 
name  of  the  person  who  gave  the  receipt  in  the  genitive  case. 

Nearly  all  the  tablets  record  transactions  connected  with  auc- 
tion sales,  the  person  whose  effects  were  thus  disposed  of  giving 


-02  POMPEII 

Jucundus  a  receipt  in  full  for  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  less  a  com- 
mission, mcrcede  minus.  A  few  contain  receipts  for  rent  which 
Jucundus  paid  for  the  use  of  property  belonging  to  the  city  —  a 
fullery  (p.  394),  the  rent  of  which  altogether  amounted  to  1652 
sesterces,  about  S75  ;  a  pasture,  for  the  use  of  which  he  paid  2675 
sesterces,  about  Si  30;  and  a  piece  of  arable  land, ///;;c///i-,  on 
which  he  paid  6000  sesterces,  about  $300,  in  rents. 

We  present  an  example  of  both  classes  of  receipts.  The 
first,  which  we  may  call  Tablet  A,  was  given  by  a  lady,  Umbri- 
cia  Januaria,  for  the  proceeds  of  an  auction  sale ;  it  is  dated 
December  12,  a.d.  56.  The  other.  Tablet  B,  is  the  receipt  for 
the  rent  of  public  pasture  land  and  belongs  to  the  year  59  a.d. 

TABLET   A 

Title 

Perscriptio  Uvibriciae  Jatiiiariac,  '  Entry  of  account  of  Um- 
bricia  Januaria.' 

Receipt.     Pages  2  and  3 

HS  n.  CC  I  DD  00  XXXVIIII,  quae  pecnnia  in  stipulatum  L. 
Caccili  hicjindi  venit  ob  aiictioncni  Uvibriciae  lannariae  mcrcede 
minus  persoluta  habere  se  dixit  Unibricia  lannaria  ab  L.  Caecilio 
Inciindo. 

Act\iiin'\  Ponipcis  pr\idic'\  id\_us'\  Dec\_embrcs'\  L.  Duvio, 
P.   Clodio  COS. 

'  Umbricia  Januaria  declared  that  she  had  received  from  L. 
Caecilius  Jucundus  11,039  sesterces,  which  sum  came  into  the 
hands  of  L.  Caecilius  Jucundus  by  agreement  as  the  proceeds 
of  an  auction  sale  for  Umbricia  Januaria,  the  commission  due 
him  having  been  deducted. 

'  Done  at  Pompeii  on  the  twelfth  day  of  December,  in  the 
consulship  of  Lucius  Duvius  and  Publius  Clodius.' 

Names  of  the  Witxes.ses.     Page  4 

The  seals  of  the  witnesses,  nine  in  number,  appear  in  the 
groove  at  the  middle  of  the  page.  The  names  are  in  the  geni- 
tive case,  as  if  dependent  on  sigillum,  'seal.' 


R?:CKIPTS    OF    CAECILIUS   JUCUNDUS  503 

Q.    Appiilci  Scveri.  M.  Epidi  Hyuioiaei. 

M.  Lucre ti  Lcri.  Q.  Grani  Lcsbi. 

Ti.  IhH  Abascanti.  T.  Vcsoni  Lc.  .  .  . 

M.  lull  Ci'cscentis.  D.  Void  Tluxlli. 
M.   Tereiiti  Primi. 

*  Seal  of  Quintus  Appuleius  Severus,  Marcus  Lucretius  Lerus, 
Tiberius  Julius  Abascantus,  M.  Julius  Crescens,  M.  Terentius 
Primus,  M.  Epidius  Hymenaeus,  O.  Granius  Lesbus,  Titus  Ve- 
sonius  Le.  .  .  .  ,  D.  Volcius  Thallus.' 

Memorandum.     Page  5 

L.  Duvio  Avito,  P.  Clodio  Thrasca  cos.,  pr.  id.  Deccnibr.  D. 
Volcius  Thallus  scripsi  rogatii  Uifibriciac  laniiariae  catu  acccpisse 
ab  L.  Caecilio  lucundo  HS  n.  X/  xxxix  ex  auctioiie  ciiis  mercede 
uiinns  ex  interrogatione  facta  tabellarnm  {^signatanim^  Act. 
Pouipeis. 

'  On  December  12,  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius  Duvius  Avitus 
and  Publius  Clodius  Thrasea,  I,  Decimus  Volcius  Thallus, 
having  examined  the  tablets  put  under  seal,  at  the  request  of 
Umbricia  Januaria  declared  in  writing  that  she  had  received 
from  L.  Caecilius  Jucundus  11,039  sesterces  as  the  proceeds 
of  an  auction  sale  after  deducting  his  commission.  Done  at 
Pompeii.' 

Tablet  A  gives  the  ordinary  form  of  the  receipt  and  the  memo- 
randum. There  are  occasional  variations.  A  few  tablets  have 
only  two  leaves  and  four  pages.  In  such  cases,  the  leaves  are 
tied  and  sealed  in  the  same  way  as  the  first  two  of  the  triptych, 
but  only  half  of  the  fourth  page  is  left  for  the  signatures  of  the 
witnesses  ;  the  memorandum  is  written  on  the  other  half  with 
pen  and  ink,  and  so  appears  on  the  outside  of  the  tablet. 

In  two  of  the  older  tablets,  dated  27  and  54  a.d.,  the  memo- 
randum, as  the  receipt,  is  a  record  of  an  oral  acknowledgment ; 
it  may  be  that  this  was  the  proper  legal  form  in  use  to  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Claudius.  In  a  few  of  the  later  examples,  as 
Tablet  B,  the  receipt  as  well  as  the  memorandum  has  the  form 
of  a  voucher  in  the  handwriting  of  the  person  who  receives  the 
money,  or  his  agent. 


504  POMPEII 

TABLET    B 

Receipt.     Pages  2  and  3 

L.  Vcranio  Hnpsaeo,  L.  Albucio  Ins  to  diuunviris  iure  dic\jnido'\ 
XI I  11  K\_alcndas\  Inlias  Privatus  coloniac  Ponipeian\_orHi)i\ 
ser\^vus~\  scrips/  nic  acccpissc  ab  L.  Caecilio  lucimdo  sestei'tios 
viillc  scscciitos  scptiiaginta  qniiiqiie  mimmos,  et  accepi  ante  Jianc 
diem,  quae  dies  f nit  VIII  idus  lunias,  sestej-\_tios~\  viille  }iiij>n?ws, 
oh  vectigal  pnblicjmi  pasqua  \iox pasqnorHm\ 

ActSjini^  Poin[peis~\   Cn.  Fontcio  C.   Vipstano  cos. 

'  On  June  18,  in  the  duumvirate  of  L.  Veranius  Hypsaeus  and 
L.  Albucius  Justus,  I,  Privatus,  slave  of  the  colony  of  Pompeii, 
declared  in  writing  that  I  had  received  from  L.  Caecilius  Jucun- 
dus  1675  sesterces,  and  previous  to  this  day,  on  June  6,  I  re- 
ceived 1000  sesterces,  as  rent  for  the  public  pasture. 

'  Done  at  Pompeii  in  the  consulship  of  Gnaeus  Fonteius  and 
Gaius  \"ipstanus.' 

Names  of  the  Witnesses.  Page  4 
In  the  groove  in  the  middle  of  the  page  are  four  seals.  As  the 
receipt  was  given  for  the  city,  the  witnesses  were  the  two  duum- 
virs and  the  slave  Privatus,  who  received  the  money.  The  name 
of  Privatus  appears  twice  with  seal,  under  that  of  each  duumvir. 
In  antiquity  municipahties,  as  well  as  individuals,  owned  slaves. 

L.  l^erani  Hypsaci 

Privati,  c.  c.   V.  C  scr.  (for  colononnn  coloniac  Ve- 

neriac  Corncliac  scrvi) 
L.  Albnci  Iiisti 
Privati,  c.  c.   V.  C.  sc. 

CJiirograpJium  Privati  c.  c.   V.  C.  ser. 

'  Seal  of  Lucius  Veranius  Hypsaeus ;  Privatus,  slave  of  the 
citizens  of  the  colony  of  Pompeii ;  L.  Albucius  lustus  ;  Privatus, 
slave  of  the  citizens  of  the  colony  of  Pompeii. 

'  Autograph  of  Privatus,  slave  of  the  citizens  of  the  colony  of 
Pompeii.' 

Memorandum.      Page  5 

I.  Vcranio  Hupsaco  L.  Albucio  Insto  d\iinmviris^  i\jirc'\ 
d\icundo'\  XIV  K.  Inl.  Privatus  c.  c.  V.  C.  ser.  scripsi  vie  acce- 


INSCRIPTIONS    UPON    AMPHORAE  505 

pisse  ab  L.  Caecilio  Iiicimdo  HS  00  DCLXXV  ct  accepi  ante  Jianc 
dicDi  VIII  idus  Iiinias  HS  00  nininnos  ob  vectigal  publicum 
pasquoruni. 

Act.  Pom.  C.  Fontcio  C.   Vips.  cos. 

The  language  of  the  memorandum  is  so  nearly  identical  with 
that  of  the  receipt  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  add  a  translation. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  amphorae  found  at  Pompeii 
bear  inscriptions,  generally  written  with  a  pen  in  black  ink, 
but  sometimes  painted  with  a  brush  in  red  or  white.  Most 
of  them  contained  wine.  The  percentage  of  Greek  inscriptions 
is  large,  an  evidence  of  the  strength  of  the  Greek  population  in 
the  region  about  the  city. 

The  wine  underwent  fermentation  in  large  round  vats  of 
baked  clay,  dolia,  which  stood  in  the  wine  cellar  of  the  villa, 
cc/la  vinaria,  or  in  a  court  (p.  364);  from  these  the  amphorae 
were  filled.  The  vats  containing  the  common  wines  were  ordi- 
narily emptied  before  the  next  vintage,  when  they  were  needed 
for  the  new  wine,  but  the  better  sorts  were  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  dolia  for  a  longer  time.  The  wine  of  one  Pompeian  am- 
phora was  left  in  the  vat  till  after  the  harvest  of  the  second  year : 
C.  Pouiponio  C.  Anicio  COS.,  ex  fund\o\  Badiano,  diff\_usuiu]  id. 
Auo-.^  biuiuin,  —  'Consulship  of  Gains  Pomponius  and  Gains 
Anicius.  From  the  Badian  estate.  Poured  (into  amphorae) 
August  13.  Two  years  old.'  In  what  year  Pomponius  and 
Anicius  were  consuls  we  do  not  know. 

The  earhest  amphora  of  which  the  date  is  certain  was  filled 
in  25  A.D.  :  \_Cosso  Len~\tido  M.  Asinio  cos.  fund.  The  place  from 
which  it  came,  however,  is  not  so  easily  determined,  since  fund. 
may  refer  to  the  town  of  F'undi,  or  stand  iox  fundus,  'estate,' 
the  name  that  followed  having  been  obliterated.  The  names 
of  two  such  estates  were  lately  recovered  from  amphorae  in  the 
house  of  the  VqX.\X\,  fundus  Satrianns  -^w^  fundus  Asinianus. 

In  addition  to  the  product  of  Italian  vineyards  the  Pompeians 
used  also  imported  wines  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
islands  near  by.  One  dealer,  M.  Fabius  Euporus,  kept  wine 
from  Cnidus,   Cnidiuin.     Wine  from  the  island    of    Cos  is  fre- 


5o6  POMPEII 

quently  mentioned,  as  in  this  inscription  :  Coiun  vct[^iis']  P.  Ap- 
pulci  Bassi,  —  '  Old  Coan  of  Publius  Appuleius  Bassus.' 

Different  kinds  of  wine  were  sometimes  designated  by  char- 
acteristic names.  A  certain  Greek,  M.  Pomponius  Teupon, 
produced  a  brand  which  he  called  '  Frenzy  Wine '  (Aurrto?), 
as  if  so  strong  that  it  would  make  the  drinker  frantic.  Another 
Greek,  Timarchus,  named  one  of  his  wines  '  White  Drink,' 
KevKovvdpiov. 

An  amphora  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii  was  labelled  Giista- 
ticiuDi,  '  Breakfast  Drink ' ;  it  no  doubt  contained  viiilsiwi,  a 
kind  of  mead  made  by  mixing  honey  with  wine,  which  the 
ancients  drank  with  the  first  meal  of  the  day.  The  word 
vuilsiini  occurs  on  another  amphora  discovered  previously. 

Fruits  and  other  edibles  of  all  kinds  were  kept  in  amphorae. 
On  one  w^as  written  :  Oliva  alba  dnlce  (for  olivae  albae  ditlccs) 
P.  C.  E.,  —  'White  sweet  olives  of  P.  C.  E. ' ;  the  name  cannot 
be  determined  from  the  initials.  On  other  amphorae  the  words 
for  bean  meal  {/omentiejn),  honey,  and  lentils  appear,  the  last 
being  designated  by  the  Greek  word. 

A  large  number  of  small  jars  contained  the  fish  sauces,  — 
garmn,  liqjtamen,  and  mnria, — of  which  the  ancients  were  so 
fond ;  reference  has  already  been  made  to  Umbricius  Scaurus 
(p.  15),  who  seems  to  have  had  several  establishments  for  the 
making  of  the  sauces,  conducted  by  slaves,  freedmen,  and  per- 
haps by  members  of  his  family. 

The  best  quality  of  gannn,  which  was  probably  a  thick 
preparation,  a  kind  of  fish  jelly,  was  designated  by  the  letters 
g.  f.,  for  gariim — Jlos,  'garum  blossom,'  as  in  the  following 
inscription:  g\anini\ — f\_los'\  scoinbr\_i\  Scanri  ab  Eutyclie 
Scauri,  — '  Scaurus's  tunny  jelly,  blossom  brand,  put  up  by 
Eutyches,  slave  of  Scaurus.'  We  frequently  find  liqiiaincii  op- 
timum, '  best  liquamen. ' 

The  tmu'ia  was  apparently  a  fish  pickle,  certain  parts  of  the 
fish,  or  certain  varieties,  being  preserved  in  brine.  According 
to  PUny  the  Elder  some  fish  sauces  were  prepared  in  a  special 
way,  to  be  used  by  the  Jews  on  fast  days  ;  two  of  these,  as 
already  noted,  appear  in  the  inscriptions  upon  Pompeian  jars, 
garum  castum  and  muria  casta  (p.    18). 


STAMPS  507 

In  these  inscriptions  upon  jars  of  various  sizes  the  name  of 
the  proprietor  is  sometimes  given,  in  the  genitive  case,  as  M. 
Caesi  Celeris,  —  'Of  M.  Caesius  Celer.'  The  name  of  the  man 
to  vvhum  the  consignment  is  made  is  put  in  the  dative,  as  Albii- 
cio  Celso. 

The  name  of  the  consignor  sometimes  follows  that  of  the 
consignee,  as  liquainen  optimnin  A.  Viniio  Modesto  ab  Aga- 
tJiopodc,  —  'Best  liquamen,  for  Aulus  Virnius  Modestus,  from 
Agathopus.' 

An  inscription  similar  to  that  just  mentioned,  on  an  amphora 
found  in  the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus,  illustrates  the  extent 
to  which  family  pride  might  assert  itself  in  the  naming  of  chil- 
dren :  Caccilio  hicuiido  ab  Scxsto  Metcllo,  —  '  To  Caecilius  Jucun- 
dus from  Sextus  Metellus.'  The  sender  and  the  recipient  were 
both  sons  of  Lucius  Caecilius  Jucundus.  According  to  common 
usage,  one  of  the  sons  would  have  received  the  name  Lucius 
Caecilius  Jucundus,  after  the  father  ;  while  the  other  would  have 
been  called  Lucius  Caecilius,  with  a  cognomen  derived  perhaps 
from  the  name  of  the  mother.  But  the  prosperous  Pompeian 
wished  to  suggest  a  relationship  with  the  distinguished  family 
of  the  Caecilii  Metelli,  so  he  named  one  son  Sextus  Caecilius 
Jucundus  Metellus,  and  the  other  Ouintus  Caecilius  Jucundus, 
the  name  Quintus  being  common  in  the  family  of  the  Caecilii 
Metelli.  The  names  of  the  two  sons  are  found  together  in  an 
election  notice  :  Q.  S.  Caecili  Incundi,  — '  Quintus  and  Sextus 
Caecilius  Jucundus.' 

Besides  the  names  of  the  makers,  inscriptions  relating  to 
weight  and  ownership  are  found  on  the  cups  and  other  objects 
of  the  Boscoreale  treasure.  Thus  on  the  under  side  of  the 
Alexandria  patera  (Fig.  187,  and  p.  380)  we  iind  the  following 
record,  the  letters  of  which  are  outlined  with  points  :  PJn\ala\ 
et  enib\Je}na\  p\endentia\  p\ondo  libras']  II,  imcias  X,  scrnpiila 
VI.  Phi{ala\  p\endens\  p\ondo  libras']  II,  nncias  II, 
semunciaui ;  emb  {Icina]  p  {^ciidcjis]  p  {ondo]  nncias  VII,  sent 
nnciavi,  'The  bowl  and  the  relief  medallion'  together  'weigh 
2  pounds,  10  ounces,  and  6  scruples.  The  bowl  weighs  2 
pounds,  2\  ounces;  the  relief  medalhon  weighs  7^  ounces.' 
In   giving  the  items  separately  no  account  was  taken   of  the 


5o8  POMPEII 

scruples.  Reckoning  the  Roman  pound  as  327.453  grammes, 
the  weight  of  the  patera  with  its  rehef  was  934.608  grammes,  or 
2.504  Troy  pounds.  This  differs  from  the  present  weight  by 
less  than  a  gramme. 

Occasionally  a  name  in  the  genitive  case  is  found  with  the 
record  of  weight,  written  with  the  same  kind  of  letters ;  in  such 
cases  it  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  the  name  is  that  of  the 
original  owner.  On  the  under  side  of  one  of  the  pair  of  cups 
ornamented  with  skeletons  (Fig.  2 17)  is  the  inscription:  GAVIAE 
P- II -Sell  II;  a  later  hand,  writing  with  a  fine  point,  added 
VAS  II  in  the  space  after  GAVIAE,  as  if  to  supply  an  obvious 
omission,  so  that  the  inscription  in  full  would  read,  Gaviae. 
Vas\j.i\  II  ^pcndcntia\  p\ondo  libms'\  II,  iincias  VIII,  \_scru- 
pula\  IV,  'The  property  of  Gavia.  The  two  cups  weigh  2 
pounds,  8  ounces,  and  4  scruples'  (2.351  Troy  pounds). 

In  some  instances  the  name  of  a  later  owner  has  been  scratched 
on  the  surface  with  a  pointed  tool.  The  name  of  a  woman. 
Maxima,  written  in  full  or  in  abbreviation,  appears  on  forty-five 
of  the  pieces  in  the  Louvre.  We  may  safely  accept  the  con- 
clusion of  De  Villefosse,  that  she  is  probably  the  one  who  made 
the  collection,  obtaining  her  specimens  from  different  sources, 
and  that  to  her  the  Boscoreale  treasure  belonged  at  the  time  of 
the  eruption. 

Besides  the  seals  which  were  used  in  signing  documents  the 
Romans  had  stamps,  signacula,  which  they  impressed  upon 
various  articles  as  a  means  of  identification  or  as  an  advertise- 
ment. Impressions  of  such  stamps  are  found  upon  bricks  and 
other  objects  of  clay,  and  in  one  or  two  instances  upon  loaves 
of  bread.  Several  charred  loaves  in  the  Naples  Museum  have 
the  stamp:  \^CA^clcris  O.  Grani  Veri  scr.,  —  '(Made  by)  Celer, 
slave  of  Quintus  Granius  Verus.' 

The  names  upon  stamps  appear  regularly  in  the  genitive  case, 
as  X.  Popidi  Prisci,  spelled  backward  on  the  stamp,  so  that  the 
letters  appear  in  the  right  order  in  the  impression.  Since  the 
time  of  Fiorelli  many  houses  have  been  named  from  the  stamps 
found  in  them  ;  in  the  house  of  the  Vettii,  for  example,  two 
stamps  were  found  with  the  names  of  Aulus  Vettius  Restitutus 
and  Aulus  Vettius  Conviva. 


CONCLUSION 
CHAPTER    LIX 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  POMPEIAN  CULTURE 

The  ideals  of  a  nation  —  the  true  index  of  its  culture  —  iind 
expression  alike  in  its  laws,  its  literature,  its  art,  and  the  environ- 
ment of  daily  life.  They  are  a  common  heritage,  which  one 
generation  passes  on  to  another  with  its  own  increment  of  change, 
and  their  influence  extends  as  far  as  that  of  the  people  whose 
spirit  is  manifested  in  them.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  con- 
ditions of  culture  found  in  a  single  city,  unless  that  city,  as 
Athens,  had  an  independent  development  as  a  state,  are  not 
isolated  but  are  determined  in  the  main  by  general  movements 
and  tendencies,  and  are  reproduced,  with  local  differences,  in  all 
places  having  the  same  racial  and  political  connections.  The 
local  element  was  more  pronounced  and  more  characteristic  in 
ancient  than  in  modern  cities  ;  yet,  unless  the  surroundings  were 
exceptionably  favorable,  we  should  not  be  warranted  in  expect- 
ing to  find  in  a  small  city  an  isolated  development  of  special  sig- 
nificance in  art  or  taste.  Pompeii  forms  no  exception  to  the 
rule. 

The  situation  of  Pompeii  was  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  an 
indigenous  culture.  Founded  by  Samnites,  a  primitive  folk,  it 
lay  in  the  overlapping  edges  of  two  great  zones  of  influence, 
Greek  and  Roman.  It  was  a  small  town,  which  never  rose  to 
the  dignity  even  of  a  provincial  capital.  It  was  a  seaport,  which 
through  marine  trafific  kept  in  touch  with  other  cities,  especially 
those  of  the  East,  from  which  fashions  of  art,  religion,  and  life 
travelled  easily  westward.  The  political  institutions  of  the  Pom- 
peians  were  at  first  those  which  they  shared  in  common  with 
the  Samnite  and  Oscan  cities  of  the  mountains  and  the  Cam- 

509 


5IO  POMPEII 

panian  plain,  later  those  imposed  upon  them  by  the  forceful  and 
levelling  administration  of  Rome.  The  literature  which  they 
read,  as  we  learn  from  quotations  scratched  upon  the  walls, 
consisted  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  of  their  own  or  pre- 
vious periods  ;  not  a  single  line  of  an  Oscan  drama  or  poem 
has  been  found.  Their  art  was  a  reproduction  of  designs  and 
masterpieces  produced  elsewhere,  —  at  first  under  Hellenistic, 
later  under  Roman  influence,  —  on  a  scale  commensurate  with 
the  limited  resources  of  the  place.  Finally  the  countless  appli- 
ances of  everyday  life,  from  the  fixed  furniture  of  the  atrium  to 
articles  of  toilet,  were  not  rare  and  costly  objects  such  as  were 
seen  in  the  wealthy  homes  of  Rome  or  Alexandria,  but  those  of 
the  commoner  sort  everywhere  in  use.  Any  one  of  fifty  cities 
might  have  been  overwhelmed  in  the  place  of  Pompeii,  and  the 
results,  so  far  as  our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  culture  in  its 
larger  aspects  is  concerned,  would  not  have  been  essentially 
different. 

The  representative  rather  than  exceptional  character  of  the 
remains  at  Pompeii  makes  them  either  of  less  or  of  greater  value, 
according  as  we  look  at  them  from  different  points  of  view.  If 
we  are  seeking  for  the  most  perfect  examples  of  ancient  art,  for 
masterpieces  of  the  famous  artists,  we  do  not  find  them.  Many 
of  the  Pompeian  paintings  appeal  to  modern  taste  ;  yet  it  would 
be  as  unfair  to  judge  of  the  merits  of  ancient  painting  from  the 
specimens  which  are  worked  into  the  decorative  designs  of 
Pompeian  walls  as  it  would  be  to  base  an  estimate  of  the  value 
of  modern  art  upon  chromos  and  wall  papers.  For  the  noblest 
creations  of  ancient  art  in  any  field  we  must  look  not  to  provin- 
cial towns,  but  to  the  great  centres  of  population  and  of  political 
administration,  where  genius  found  encouragement,  inspiration, 
and  adequate  means.  No  large  city,  fortunately  for  its  inhab- 
itants, was  visited  by  such  a  disaster  as  that  which  befell  the 
Campanian  town  ;  and  the  wealth  of  artistic  types  at  Pompeii 
bears  witness  to  the  universality  of  art  in  the  Greco-Roman 
world. 

Since  these  remains  are  so  broadly  typical,  they  are  invaluable 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  civiHzation  of  which  they  formed  a 
part.     They   shed   light   on   countless   passages   of    Greek   and 


CONCLUSION  SI  I 

Roman  writers.  Literature,  however,  ordinarily  records  only 
that  which  is  exceptional  or  striking,  while  here  we  find  the 
surroundings  of  life  as  a  whole,  the  humblest  details  being- 
presented  to  the  eye. 

Pompeii,  as  no  other  source  outside  the   pages   of  classical 
authors,   helps  us  to  understand  the  ancient  man. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX^ 


CHAPTER    I.     THE    SITUATION    OF    POiMPEH 

Physical  gcog]- a pliy  of  Campania,  Vesinnns :  Nissen,  Italische  Landes- 
kunde.  vol.  i  (Berlin,  1883).  pp.  263-272  ;  Phillips.  Vesuvius  (Oxford,  i86g)  ; 
Vi.  VOM  Rath,  Der  Vesuv  (Berlin,  1873)  i  Palmieri,  II  Vesuvio  e  la  sua  storia 
(Milan.  1880):  J UDU,  Volcanoes  (International  Scientific  Series,  New  York, 
18S1)  ;  LoisLEV.  Mount  Vesuvius  —  A  Descriptive.  Historical,  and  Geological 
Account  of  the  Volcano  and  its  Surroundings  (London,  i88g);  RuGGlERO, 
Delia  eruzione  del  Vesuvio  nelF  anno  Lxxi.x.  in  the  commemorative  volume 
published  under  the  title  Pompei  e  la  regione  sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio  nelP  anno 
Lxxix  (Naples,  1879).  PP-  15-3-- 

Pompeii  as  a  scapvt  [p.  3]  :   Stral).  Geog.  V.  iv.  8  (p.  247). 

77/6'  scacoast  and  tlie  Saruo  in  antiquity  [p.  4]  :  RuciGiERc),  op.  cit..  pp. 
5-14:    Mau.  Deir  antico  lido   del   mare.  Bull.   delP  Inst.,   1880.  pp.   89-92; 

1  An  extensive  collection  of  titles  relating  to  Pompeii  and  Vesuvius  is  given  by  F. 
FURCHHEIM,  Bibliografia  di  Pompei,  Erculano  e  Stabia  (Edit.  2,  Naples,  1891)  and 
Bibliografia  del  Vesuvio  (Naples,  1897). 

In  the  Bibliographical  Appendix  figures  in  brackets  refer  to  the  pages  of  this  book. 
The  following  abbreviations  are  employed  :  — 

Ann.  deir  Inst.  =  Annali  dell'  Instituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica  (57  vols.,  Rome, 

1829-1885). 
Bull.  com.  =  Bullettino  della  commissione  archeologica  communale  di  Roma  (vols.  1-19, 

Rome,  1872-1901). 
Bull,  deir  Inst.  =  Bullettino  dell'  Instituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica  (Rome,  1829- 

1885). 
C.  I.  L.  =  Corpus  inscriptionum  Latinarum  (Berlin,  1863  ff.). 
Ephem.  Epigr.  =  Ephemeris  Epigraphica,  corporis  inscriptionum  Latinarum  supplemen- 

tum  (vols.  1-8,  Berlin,  1872-1899). 
Jahrb.  des  Inst.  =  Jahrbuch  des  Kaiserlich  deutschen   archaologischen    Instituts   (vols. 

1-16,  Berlin,  1885-1901). 
Mon.  dei  Lincei  =  Monumenti  Antichi  pubblicati  per  cura  della  Reale  Accademia  dei 

Lincei  (Milano,  vols,  i-io,  1892-1901). 
Mon.  deir  Inst.  =  Monumenti  inediti  pubblicati  dall'  Instituto  di  corrispondenza  archeo- 
logica (12  vols,  and  Supplements,  Rome  and  Berlin,  1829-1891). 
Museo  Borb.  =  Real  Museo  Borbonico  (16  vols.,  Naples,  1824-1857). 
Not.  d.  scavi  =  Notizie  degli  scavi  di  antichiti  (Rome  and  Milan,  1876-1901). 
Pomp.  ant.  hist.  =  Pompeianarum  antiquitatum  historia  quam  .  .  .  collegit  .  .  .  los.  Fio- 

relli  (3  vols.,  Naples,  i860,  1862,  1864). 
Rhein.  Mus.  =  Rheinisches  Museum  fiir  Pliilologie  (vols.  1-56,  Frankfurt,  1842-1901). 
Rom.  Mitth.=  Mittheilungen  des  Kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts,  RQmi- 

sche  Abtheilung  (vols.  1-16,  Rome,  1886-1901). 


5M 


POMPEII 


F.  vox  DuHX.  Der  Hafen  von  Pompei.  Rheiij.  Mus.,  vol.  36  (1881).  pp.  127 
130.  632-634  ;  Mau,  Der  Hafen  von  Pompeji.  Rhein.  Mus..  vol.  36.  pp.  326-328, 
and  vol.  37  (1882).  pp.  319-320. 

CHAPTER    II.     POMPEII    BEFORE    THE    ERUPTION 

The  founding  of  Pompeii  [p.  8]  :  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  cit}-  is 
closely  connected  witli  that  of  the  system  of  streets,  for  which  see  references 
to  Chap.  V,  p.  517. 

Origin  of  the  name  [p.  8]  :  cf.  F.  vox  DuHX,  \'erhandlung  der  34"" 
Philologen-Versammlung  (i88q).  p.  154;  for  pompe  =  quinque,  cf.  Buck. 
Der  \'ocalismus  der  Oskischen  Sprache  (Leipzig.  1892),  pp.  118-119.  The 
derivation  of  Pompeii  from  tto/xtt?/  (iriixTreLv)  is  assumed  by  Nissen,  Pompe- 
janische  Studien  (Leipzig,  1877).  p.  580;  cf.  also  Sogliaxo,  Rendiconto 
della  Accademia  di  Archeologia,  Nuova  Serie,  Naples,  vol.  15  (1901).  p.  115. 

The  expedition  of  P.  Cornelius  [p.  9]  :  Li  v.  IX.  xxxviii.  2-3. 

The  siege  of  Sulla  [p.  10]  :  Appian.  Bel.  Civ..  I.  v.  39.  vi.  50;  Oros.  V. 
XVIII.  22  ;  Veil.  Pater.  II.  xvi.  2. 

The  Pompeians  and  P.  Sulla  [p.  10]  :  Cic.  Pro  P.  Sulla,  xxi. 

Excavations  near  the  Sarno  canal  [p.  10]  :  Not.  d.  scavi.  1880.  pp.  494- 
498  ;  1 88 1,  pp.  25-29.  64-66.  For  other  evidence  relating  to  the  suburbs,  see 
NissEX,  Pompejanische  Studien,  p.  379:  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  4  (1889), 
pp.  299-300.  344. 

Inscriptions  Q).  11]  —  referring  to  the  Saline nses :  C.  I.  L.  I\'.  1611  :  Not. 
d.  scavi,  1884,  p.  51.  Referring  to  the  Campanienses :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  470,  480, 
1216,  1293  [quoted  p.  492],  2353  [p.  219]. 

Venus  Pompeiana  [p.  12]  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  8.  pi.  34:  Helbig,  Wand- 
gemalde  der  vom  Vesuv  verschiitteten  Stadte  Campaniens  (Leipzig,  1868), 
no.  295;  WISSOWA,  De  Veneris  simulacris  Romanis  (Breslau,  1882).  pp.  15- 
21  ;  cf.  also  RcssBACH,  Vier  Pompejanischen  Wandbilder,  Jahrb.  des  Inst. 

vol.  8  (1893),  pp.  57-59  (no.  4)- 

Name  of  the  Roman  colony  [p.  12]  :  known  from  inscriptions,  as  that  of 
Holconius  Ruftis  and  Egnatius  Postumus  [p.  85],  and  the  tablets  of  Caecilius 
Jucundus,  as  3340,  CXLIII.  in  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  i  ;  with  the  latter  we  may 
compare  the  abbreviation  after  the  name  of  Privatus  Qj.  504]. 

Civic  administration  [p.  12]  :  Marqu.\rdt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung, 
vol.  I  (Edit.  2,  Leipzig,  1881).  pp.  132-215:  C.  I.  L.  X.  pp.  90-93.  IV. 
pp.  249-255;  WiLLE.MS,  Les  elections  municipales  a  Pompei  (Paris.  1886), 
and  review  of  this  book  by  Mau.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  4  (1889),  pp.  298-302. 

Duumvirates  of  Caligula  [p.  14]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  901,  902,  904. 

Lex  Petronia  [p.  14]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  858  [cf.  p.  219]  :  Marquardt,  op.  cit. 
vol.  I,  p.  170. 

Inscriptions  referring  to  priests  [p.  14]  :  augurs,  C.  I.  L.  X.  806,  820,  822  ; 
pontifices,  C.  I.  L.  X.  788.  789,  791.  851,  859;  of  Mars,  C.  I.  L.  IV.  879:  of 
Ceres,  C.  I.  L.  X.  812,  1036.  1074;  of  Ceres  and  Venus,  Not.  d.  scavi,  1890, 


APPENDIX  515 

p.  91,  and  Ephem.  Epigr.  VIII.  p.  86;  divinity  not  mentioned,  C.  I.  L.  X. 
810-813.  816.  950.  998-999;  of  Augustus,  C.  I.  L.  X.  798,  830,  837-840,  943- 
948,  IV.  1 180  (?)  ;  of  Julia  Augusta.  C.  I.  L.  X.  961  ( ?)  ;  of  Fortuna  Augusta, 
C.  I.  L.  X.  824-828;  of  Mercury  and  Maia.  C.  I.  L.  X.  884-923;  of  Nero, 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  1 1 85  [quoted  on  p.  222]. 

Officials  of  the  Pagiis  Augustus  Felix  [p.  14]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  814,  853,  924, 
944,  1027.  1028,  1030.  1042,  1055,  1074;  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  4  (1889),  p.  344. 

Poinpeian  wine  [p.  14]  :  Plin.  N.  H.  XIV.  Ii.  35,  III.  38,  vi.  70;  Colu- 
mella. De  re  rust.  III.  II.  27.  For  the  forms  of  tlie  amphorae,  see  the  plate 
at  the  end  of  C.  I.  L.  IV.  following  the  map  ;  for  the  inscriptions,  C.  I.  L.  IV. 
pp.  171-188  and  Suppl.  2. 

Poinpeian  cabbage  and  onions  [p.  15]  :  Plin.  N.  H.  XIX.  viii.  140;  Colu- 
mella, De  re  rust.  X.  135,  XII.  x.  i. 

Volcanic  products  [p.  15]  :  pumice  stone,  Vitr.  II.  vi.  2;  oil  mills,  Cato, 
De  agri  cultura,  xxii.  3,  4,  cxxxv.  2. 

Cicero'' s  Pompeianunt  [p.  16]  :  Cic.  Acad.  pr.  II.  iii.  9,  xxv.  80;  ad  Att.  I. 
XX.  I,  V.  II.  I,  X.  XV.  I  ,  XVI.  4,  XIII.  VIII ;  ad  Fam.  VII.  in.  i,  iv,  XII. 
XX;  ad  Quint,  fr.  II.  xiv.  i;  Plut.  Cic.  viii.  See  also  Schmidt,  Cicero's 
Villen  —  Das  Pompeianum,  Neue  Jahrbiicher  fiir  das  Klassische  Altertum.  vol.  3 
(1S99),  pp.  489-497,  and  the  review  by  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.  vol.  15  (1900), 
pp. 129-130. 

Death  of  Clatidius''s  Drusus  at  Pompeii  [p.  16]  :  Suet.  Div.  Claud,  xxvii. 

Inscriptions  [p.  16]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  874,  875  ;  for  the  Greek  inscriptions  dis- 
covered at  Pompeii,  cf.  C.  I.  L.  IV,  Index,  p.  264  ;  Kaibel,  Inscriptiones  Graecae 
Siciliae  et  Italiae,  pp.  188-189;  Diltiiey,  Dipinti  Pompeiani  accompagnati 
d^  epigrammi  greci,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.  vol.  48  (1876),  pp.  294-314. 

Population  of  Pompeii  [p.  16]  ;  Fiorelli,  Gli  Scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861 
al  1872,  App.  3,  pp'.  12-14;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  374-379. 

Evidence  regarding  the  existence  of  a  Jeivisli  colony  at  Pompeii  [pp.  17-18] 
—  inscriptions  cited:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1507.  2569.  2609.  261 1,  IV.  Suppl.  4976. 
5244.  Painting  ivith  the  judgment  of  Solomon  :  LuMBROSO.  Sul  dipinto  pom- 
peiano  in  cui  si  e  ravvisato  il  giudizio  di  Salomone.  Memorie  della  Ace.  dei 
Lincei,  Serie  3.  vol.  11  (1883),  pp.  303-305  ;  Samter.  Archaologischer  Anzei- 
ger,  Beiblatt  zum  Jahr.  des  Inst.,  vol.13  (1898),  pp.  49-50.  Supposed  Chris- 
tian inscription  and  the  literature  relating  to  it :  DE  Rossi.  Una  memoria  dei 
Cristiani  in  Pompei.  Bulletino  di  Archeologia  Cristiana,  vol.  2  (1864),  pp. 
69-72.  and  Dei  Giudei  Libertini  e  dei  Cristiani  in  Pompei,  ibid.  pp.  92-93  ; 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  679,  and  Suppl.  p.  461. 


CHAPTER    III.     THE    DESTRUCTION    OF    POMPEII 

The  particulars  of  the  eruption  are  treated  at  length  in  the  works  on  Vesu- 
vius cited  in  the  note  to  Chap.  I. 

Vesuvius  before  the  eruption    [p.    19]  :    Strabo.  V.  vili.   (p.  247)  ;    Diod. 


5i6  POMPEII 

Sic.  IV.  XXI.  5;  Vitr.  II.  vi.  2.  3;  Mart.  Epigr.  IV.  XLiv :  Palmieri, 
Del  Vesuvio  dei  tempi  di  Spartaco  e  di  Strabone  e  del  precipuo  cangiamento 
avvenuto  nell"  anno  79  dell"  era  volgare.  Pompei  e  la  regione  sotterrate  dal 
Vesuvio  neir  anno  Lxxix,  pp.  91-94;  see  also  Loblev.  Mount  Vesuvius, 
pp.  95-98  and  pi.  8.  Representation  of  l'esin<iiis  in  a  Pompeian  ivall  paint- 
ing (discovered  in  1879)  :  Not.  d.  scavi,  1879,  P  -^5  ^  reproduction.  Not.  d. 
scavi,  1880.  pi.  \\l..  with  a  geological  analysis  by  Palmieri,  pp.  233-234  ;  repro- 
duced also  by  de  Marchi.  II  culto  privato  di  Roma  antica.  vol.  i  (Milan.  1896), 
pi.  5  (p.  100). 

The  earthquake  of  63  a.d.  [p.  19]  :  Tac.  Ann.  XV.  xxii  (erroneously 
assigned  to  62)  ;  Sen.  N.  Q.  VI.  i.  1-15.  xxvi.  5.  xxvii.  i  :  cf.  also  the 
dedicatory  inscription  of  the  temple  of  Isis  [p.  170]. 

Date  of  the  eruption  [p.  19]  :  Mau,  Del  mese  e  del  giorno  dell'  enizione, 
Bull,  deir  Inst.  1880,  pp.  92-96;  Not.  d.  scavi,  1889,  pp.  407-410  ;  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  5  (1890),  pp.  282-283. 

Ancient  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the  eruption  [pp.  19-20]  :  Plin.  Ep. 
VI.  XVI,  XX;  Dio  Cass.  LXVI.  xxi-xxiil  ;  incidental  references,  M. 
Aurel.  Anton.  IV.  XLViii ;  Euseb.  Chron.  ad  an.  Abr.  2095;  Plut.  De  sera 
numinis  vindicta,  xxii.  p.  566  E,  De  Pythiae  oraculis,  ix.  p.  398  E  ;  Tertullian, 
Apologet.  XL,  De  pallio,  11. 

Covering  of  Herculaneu}n  [p.  21]  ;  RuGGiERO,  Delia  eruzione  del  Vesuvio 
neir  anno  lxxix  (see  note  to  Chap.  I.),  pp.  21-22. 

Excavations  at  Stabiae  [p.  21]  :  see  note  to  Chap.  IV. 

Commissio)i  sent  by  Titus  [p.  23]  :  Suet.  Div.  Tit.  8. 


CHAPTER    IV.     THE    UNEARTHING 

Excavations  at  Pompeii :  Fiorelli.  Pompeianarum  antiquitatum  historia 
(3  vols..  Naples.  1860-1864)  ;  Fiorelli.  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872 
(Naples,  1873)  ;  C.I.L.  X.  pp.  93-94.  Periodical  reports  of  the  excavations  : 
Bullettino  Archeologico  Napolitanopubblicato  da  Avellixo  (vols.  1-6,  Naples, 
1842-1848).  Bullettino  Archeologico  Napolitano.  Nuova  Serie.  edited  by 
Garrucci  and  Minervixi  (vols.  1-8,  Naples.  1853-1863)  ;  Bullettino  Archeo- 
logico Italiano,  edited  by  Minervixi  (1861-1862)  ;  Giornale  degli  scavi  di 
Pompei  pubblicato  da  Giuseppe  Fiorelli  (Naples.  1861-1865,  incomplete)  ; 
Giornale  degli  scavi  di  Pompei,  Nuova  Serie.  pubblicata  dagli  alunni  della 
Scuola  archeologica  (vols.  1-4.  Naples.  1868-1879)  ;  since  1876,  in  the  Noti- 
zie  degli  scavi  di  antichita.  The  reports  on  the  excavations  by  Professor  Mau 
V  were  jDublished  in  the  Bullettino  delF  Instituto  from  1873  to  1885  ;  since  1885 
they  have  appeared  in  the  Rbmische  Mittheilungen. 

Excavations  at  Herculaneuni :  RuGGiERO,  Storia  degli  scavi  di  Ercolano 
(Naples.  1885). 

Excavations  at  Stabiae:  RuGGlERO,  Degli  scavi  di  Stabia  dal  MDCCXLIX 
al  MDCCLXXXii  (Naples.  1881). 


APPKNDIX  517 

Itiscripthvis  disccn'cri'd  In'  Foiitaiia  [p.  25]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  92S,  952. 
7»//<'  required  to  complete  the  excavatioits  [p.  29]  :   Fiokelli.  Gli  scavi  di 
Pompei  clal  1861  al  1872,  App.  p.  10. 


CHAPTER   V.      A    BIRD'S-EYE    VIEW 

The  systeDi  of  streets  [p.  32]:  Nissen,  Das  Templum  (Berlin,  1869).  pp.  63- 
81  ;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien.  pp.  572-593;  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal 
1861  al  1872,  App.  pp.  10-12:  vox  Bezold,  Osservazioni  suUa  limitazione  di 
Pompei.  Bull,  dell'  Inst.  1880.  pp.  151-159:  Mau,  Osservazioni  sulla  rete 
stradale  di  Pompei.  Bull,  dell"  Inst.  1881.  pp.  108-112. 

Tlie  regions  and  insttlae  [p.  34]  :  Fiorelli,  Sulle  regioni  Pompeiane  e 
della  loro  antica  distribuzione  (Naples,  1858);  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di 
Pompei  (Naples,  1875),  PP-  24-25  ;  for  the  names  given  to  houses,  Fiorelli, 
Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872.  App.  pp.  18-20.  Meaning  of  the  word 
Insula:  RiCHTER.  Insula,  Hermes,  vol.  20  (1885),  pp.  91-100.  ' 


CHAPTER  VI.     MATERIALS,  CONSTRUCTION,  ARCHITECTURAL 

PERIODS 

Materials,  construction,  periods,  systems  of  measurement :  NisSEN',  Pomp. 
Studien.  pp.  1-97  ;  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872.  pp.  78-86; 
RUGGiERO.  Delia  eruzione  del  Vesuvio  neU'anno  lxxi.n:  (see  note  to  Chap.  I), 
pp.  5-8:  Mau,  Pompejanische  Beitraige  (Berlin,  1879),  pp.  1-41,  and  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  4  (1889),  pp.  294-298. 

Mason's  marks:  C.  I.  L.  W .  pp.  166-167;  Richter,  Ueber  antike  Stein- 
metz-zeichen  (Berlin,  1883),  pp.  13-22,  summarized  by  M.\u,  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  4  (1899).  pp.  292-294 ;  Mau,  Segni  di  scarpellino  di  Pompei,  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  47-51.  M.ARRiOTT,  Facts  about  Pompeii  (London,  1895), 
pp.  62-85,  leviewed  by  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  222-224.  A 
complete  collection  of  mason's  marks  will  appear  in  C.  I.  L.  IV.  suppl.  2. 

CHAPTER    VII.      THE    FORUM 

Excavation  (i8i3-i8i8),/'/(?;^  remains  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i. 
pt.  3,  pp.  135-212,  vol.  3,  pp.  1-17;  Gell,  Pompeiana  (Edit.  2,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1832),  vol.  I,  pp.  27-38  ;  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei  (four  parts,  cited 
as  vols.;  vols,  i  and  2,  1824;  vols.  3  and  4,  continued  by  Gau,  1828-1829; 
Paris),  vol.  3,  pp.  28-36.  plates  13'",  14;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  313-319. 

344-374- 

/nscriptions  relating  to  the  Forum  or  found  in  it :  C.  I.  L.  X.  787-794,  IV. 
pp.  4,  41,  125-127  ;  inscription  of  A.  Clodius  Flaccus  [p.  57],  X.  1074. 

Statues  of  the  Forum  [pp.  46-48]  :  M.\u,  Die  Statuen  des  Forums  voa 
Pompeji,  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  11  (1896),  ]5p.  150-156. 


5i8  POMPEII 

History  of  the  colonnade  [p.  50]  :  Mau,  II  portico  del  Foro  di  Pompei, 
Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  6  (1891),  pp.  168-176. 

Paintings  illustrating  the  life  of  the  Forum  [p.  55]  :  Le  pitture  antiche  di 
Ercolano  e  contorni  (5  vols.,  Naples,  1757-1779),  pp.  213,  221,  227;  Helbig, 
Wandgemailde,  nos.  1489-1500;  particularly  Jahn,  Ueber  Darstellungen  des 
Handwerks  und  Handelsverkehrs  auf  antiken  Wandgemalden,  Abhandlungen 
der  sachsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften.  philologisch.-hist.  Classe, 
vol.  5  (1870),  pp.  263-318  and  pi.  1-3;  reproduced  also  by  BAUiMEisxER, 
Denkmaler  des  klassischen  Altertums  (3  vols..  Munich,  1884-1888),  vol.  III. 
Fig-  1653;  SCHREIBER,  Atlas  of  Classical  Antiquities  (trans,  by  Anderson; 
London,  1895),  pi.  87,  88,  89. 

Shape  of  a  typical  forn//!  contrasted  luith  that  of  the  agora  [p.  57]  :  Vitr. 
V.  I.  1-3. 

Admission  fee,  [p.  57]  :  Friedlaexder  in  Marquardt.  Rom.  Staatsver- 
waltung  (Edit.  2),  vol.  3,  pp.  492-493. 

Slaves  not  permitted  to  witness  the  games  [p.  58]  :  Cic.  De  harus.  resp. 
XII.  26. 

CHAPTER   VIII.      THE    BUILDINGS   AROUND    THE    FORUM  — 
THE    TEMPLE    OF   JUPITER 

Of  the  Capifoliitm  in  Roman  colonies  generally :  Kuhfeldt,  De  capitoliis 
imperii  Romani  (Berlin,  1882)  ;  Castan,  Les  capitaux  provinciaux  du  monde 
remain  (Besan^on,  1886)  ;  de  Ros.si  and  Gatti,  I  campidogli  nelle  colonie  e 
nelle  altre  citta  del  mondo  romano,  Bull.  com.,  vol.  15  (1887),  pp.  66-68; 
Wissowa,  Capitolium  (2),  Pauly-Wissowa  Real-Encyclopadie,  vol.  3,  pp. 
1538-1540. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  (excavated  in  181 6-18 18,  1820)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  3,  pp.  185-200,  vol.  2.  pp.  16-17,  "^'ol-  3?  P-  '3  !  Mazois, 
Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3,  pp.48-50.pl.  30  36;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien. 
pp.  320-327  ;  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  200-209  5  Weichardt,  Pompeji  vor 
der  Zerstbrung  (Leipzig.  1897),  pp.  61-78. 

Variation  of  the  plan  from  the  Etruscan,  union  of  Greek  and  Etruscan 
elements  [p.  63]  :  cf.  Vitr.  IV.  vil.  i.  vill.  5. 

Relief  in  the  house  of  Caecilius  Jucundus  [p.  64]  :  Mau.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol. 
15  (1900),  pp.  I15-116. 

Decoration  of  the  cella  \^.  65]  :  Mau.  Geschichte  der  decorativen  Wand- 
malerei  in  Pompeji  (Berlin.  1882),  pp.  61-62,  248. 

Inscriptions  faiind  in  the  cella  [p.  66]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  796-797. 

The  Capitolium  and  the  temple  of  Zeus  Milichius  [p.  66]  :  Mau.  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  II  (1896),  pp.  141-149. 

Temples  of  Jiipiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva  in  Etruscan  and  Roman  cities 
[p.  66]  :  Serv.  Com.  in  Verg.  ad  Aen.  I.  422  ;  Vitr.  I.  vii.  i. 

Capitals  of  the  Ionic  columns  of  the  cella,  and  of  the  Corinthian  columns  of 
the  portico  [pp.  63-67]  :   Mazois.  Les  ruines  de  Pompei.  vol.  3.  pi.  35.     The 


APPENDIX  519 

shape  of  the  acanthus  leaves  is  not  that  characteristic  of  the  pre-Ronian  period. 
It  is  therefore  most  probable  that  the  teinple  was  built,  or  at  any  rate  was  com- 
pleted, in  the  early  years  of  the  colony. 

The  vaults  in  tJie podinin  [p.  67]  :   Not.  d.  scavi,  igoo.  pp.  341-344. 


CHAPTER    IX.      THE    BASILICA 

Excavation  (1813-1816)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  p.  86, 
pt.  3,  pp.  111-179  passim:  vol.  2,  p.  13. 

Inscriptions :  C.  I.  L.  X.  805-S07,  IV.  pp.  1 13-125. 

Decoration :  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  VVandmalerei,  pp.  11-17. 

Reconstruction:  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  3  (1888),  pp.  14-46,  vol.  6  (1891), 
pp.  67-71,  vol.  8  (1893),  pp.  166-171  :  cf.  also  Wolters,  Das  Chalcidicum 
der  Pompejanischen  Basilica,  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  3  (1888),  pp.  47-60.  Equal 
height  of  main  room  and  corridor  was  first  assumed  by  Mazois  (Les  ruines  de 
Pompei,  vol.  3.  pis.  17.  18),  afterward  by  Mau  (Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  156-199). 
A  clerestory  was  added  by  Caxixa  (Architettura  Antica,  vol.  3.  pi.  93),  and 
by  Laxge  (Haus  und  Halle,  Leipzig,  1885,  pp.  351-372).  Schoene  (Nissen, 
Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  198-201)  assumes  an  equal  height  for  the  large  columns 
and  the  half-columns,  with  a  gallery  above  the  corridor. 

Th-e  Basilica  Porcia  [p.  70J  :  Huelsen,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  8  (1893),  pp.  84, 
91 .  Other  references  on  the  Roman  basilicas :  Huelsen,  Nomenclator  topo- 
graphicus  (Kiepert  and  Huelsen,  Formae  urbis  Romae  antiquae,  Berlin, 
1896),  pp.  13-14. 

The  Basilica  at  Fano  [p.  71]  :  Vitr.  \ .  i.  6-10;  Prestel,  Des  M.  Vitru- 
vius  Pollio,  Basilica  zu  Fanum  Fortunae  (Strassburg,  1900).  Reconstruc- 
tion:  Viollet-le-Duc,  Entretiens  sur  Tarchitecture  (2  vols.  Paris,  1863, 
1872),  vol.  I,  pp.  150-157,  and  Atlas,  pi.  8-10:  translation  of  vol.  i  by  van 
Brunt  (under  the  title  Discourses  on  Architecture,  Boston,  1873),  pp.  144- 
149  and  pis.  8-10. 

Literature  relating  to  the  origin  of  the  Christian  basilica  :  Dehio  and  voN 
Bezold,  Die  kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes,  vol.  i  (Stuttgart,  1892),  pp. 
62-63.  and  Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New  York,  1901),  pp. 
420-421  ;  cf.  also  Holtzinger,  Die  altchristliche  und  byzantinische  Baukunst 
(Stuttgart,  1899;  in  Durm's  Handbuch  der  Architektur).  pp.  19-25;  Kraus, 
Realencyclo]>adie  der  christl.  Alterthiimer  (2  vols..  Freiburg,  1 882-1 886),  vol. 
I.  under  Basilica;  Lange,  Haus  und  Halle  (Leipzig,  1885),  pp.  270-326; 
F.  Witting,  Die  Anfainge  christlicher  Architektur  (Strassburg,  1902). 


CHAPTER    X.      THE    TEMPLE    OF    APOLLO 

Exxavation  (1817-1818).  remains,  restoration  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  I,  pt.  3.  pp.  191,  203-210.  vol.  2,  pp.  9.  69,  vol.  3.  pp.  9-16:  Cell, 
Pompeiana  (Edit.  3.  by  Cell  and  Gandy,  London.  1852),  pi.  53-54;  Mazois, 


520  POMPEII 

V  -  Les  ruines  de  Pomp^i,  V0I.4,  pis.  16-23  ;  Nissen.  Pomp.  Stiidien,  pp.  213-232  ; 
Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  93-116:  Ovekbeck-Mau.  Pompeji  (Pompeji  in 
seinen  Gebauden,  Alterthumein  und  Kunstwerken  dargestellt  von  Johannes 
OvERBECK ;  vierte  im  Vereine  mit  August  Mau  durchgearbeitete  und  ver- 
mehrte  Auflage,  Leipzig,  1884),  pp.  96-104  and  636-637  (Anm.  41-45)  ; 
V  •  Ivanoff,  Architektonische  Studien.  Heft  2  (Berlin,  1895), pi.  1-3  :  Weichardt, 
Pompeji  vor  der  Zerstorung,  pp.  35-52. 

Inscriptions  relating  to  the  temple —  Oscan  [p.  80J  :  Mau,  Bull.  delP  Inst , 
1882,  pp.  189-190,  203,  205-207;  Buecheler,  Rhein.  Mus.,  vol.  37  (1882), 
p.  643  ;  ZvETAiEFF,  Inscriptiones  Italiae  inferioris  dialecticae  (Moscow,  1886), 
p.  55  (no.  156  a)  \  VON  Planta,  Grammatik  der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dia- 
lekte  (2  vols.;  Strassburg,  1892,  1897),  vol.  2,  p.  500;  Conwav,  Italic 
Dialects  (2  vols.,  London,  1897),  vol.  i.  p.  65.  Latin  [pp.  85-86]  :  C.  I.  L. 
X.  787,  800-804. 

Paintings  [pp.  84,  87]  :  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  266,  395.  1306,  1324, 
1325,  1544.  and  Nachtrage,  pp.  461-462. 

Statnes  found  in  the  court  [p.  87]  —  Venus:  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  14,  pi.  23. 
>  Artemis  and  Apollo :  Museo  Borb..  vol.  8,  pi.  59,  60.         Herm  in  the  Naples 

Museum  formerly  thought  to  be  Maia:  Patroni,  La  pretesa  Maia,  erma  del 
Museo  Nazionale  di  Napoli,  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  15  (rgoo),  pp.  131-132. 

The  cult  of  Mercury  and  Maia  [p.  89]  :  cf.  Samter,  Altare  di  Mercurio  e 
-    .  Maia,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  8  (1893),  pp.  222-225. 

Augustus  as  Mercury  [p.  90]  :  Kiessling,  Zu  Hor.  Od.  I.  2,  in  Philolo- 
gische  Untersuchungen  (herausgegeben  von  A.  Kiessling  und  L'.  vox  Wila- 
MOWITZ-MOELLENDORFF,    Berlin),    Heft    2    (1881),  p.   92.  Inscriptions 

referring  to  the  cult  of  Mercury  and  Maia,  afterward  of  Augustus,  at  Pom- 
peii: C I.L.  X.  pp.  109-113.  Dendereh  inscription  (found  with  a  wall 
^^-^  painting  showing  the  portrait  of  an  emperor)  :  Duemichen,  Baugeschichte 
/^-yyvgy^de  des  Denderah  Tempels  (Berlin,  1877),  p.  16  and  pi.  9  ;  Krall,  Wiener  Studien, 
vol.  5  (1883).  p.  315.  note. 

CHAPTER  XI.   THE  BUILDINGS  AT  THE  NORTHWEST  COR- 
NER OF  THE  FORUM— THE  TABLE  OF  STANDARD 
MEASURES 

The  table  of  standard  measures  [p.  92]  :  Maxcini,  La  mensa  ponderaria 
di  Pompei  esistente  nel  Museo  Nazionale  di  Napoli,  Giornale  degli  scavi  di 
Pompci,  Nuova  Serie,  vol.  2  (1871),  pp.  144-161  ;  NissEX.  Pomp.  Studien, 
pp.  71-74;  Conway,  The  Italic  Dialects,  vol.  i,  pp.  67-68,  vol.  2,  pp.  521- 
523  ;  ZvETAlEFF,  Sylloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum,  pi.  13  ;  C.I.  L.  X.  793. 

Measurements  of  the  cavities  by  Mr.  Bidder:  The  Academy,  April  15, 
1895.  p.  319. 

Other  tables  of  standard  measures  [p.  93]  :  at  Minturnae,  C.I.  L.  X.  6017  ; 

at  Tivoli,  Not.  d.  scavi,  1883.  pp.  85-86,  172.  and  Lanciaxi.  Pagan  and  Chris- 

^    tian  Rome  (Boston.  1892).  pp.  40-41  :  at  Selinus,  Not.  d  Scavi,  1884.  p.  321  ; 


APPENDIX  521 

Bregenz,  Mitth.  der  Oesterr.  Centralcommission.  Neue  Folge.  vol.  8,  p.  99  ;  in 
Greek  lands,  Tarbell.  A  ''Mensa  Ponderaria"'  from  Assos ;  American  Journal 
of  Archccology,  vol.  7  (1891 ),  pp.  440-443.  and  n.  i  (the  Assos  table  is  now  in 
the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts)  ;  Bacox,  Investigations  at  Assos,  Pt.  I  (1902), 

pp-  71.  ly 

CHAPTER    XII.      THE    AIACELLUM 

Excavation  (in  1821-1822),  idiuitijicatioiiy  reconstruction :  FiORELLi, 
Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  38-56,  vol.  3,  pp-  31-32  ;  Gell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of 
1832).  vol.  I,  pp.  46-68;  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3,  pp.  59-67, 
pi.  42-46 ;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  275-286 ;  Overbeck.-Mau,  Pompeji, 
pp.  120-128  ;   Not.  d.  scavi,  1898,  pp.  333-339. 

Other  inacella  [p.  94]  in  Rome :  Huelsen,  Nomenclator  top.  (see  note  to 
Chap.  IX),  p.  44.  At  Futeoli:  Gervasio.  Sopra  alcune  iscrizioni  riguardanti 
il  Macello  nell'  antica  Pozzuoli  (Naples,  1852)  ;  published  also  in  Memorie 
della  regale  Accademia  ercolanese  di  archeologia,  vol.  6  (1853),  pp.  265-283. 

The  tholus  [p.  94]  :  Varro,  apud  Non.,  p.  448.  The  coin  of  Nero  referred 
to  is  described  by  Eckhel,  Doctrina  numorum  veterum  (Edit.  2,  8  vols., 
\'ienna,  1 792-1828),  vol.  6,  p.  273,  and  figured  by  Cohen,  Description  histo- 
rique  des  monnaies  frappees  sous  Tempire  remain,  vol.  i  (Edit.  2,  Paris,  1880), 
p.  288;  and  Donaldson,  Architectura  Numismatica,  no.  LXXII. 

Paintings  in  the  Macelluni  at  Pompeii  [pp.  96-98]  :  Helbig,  Wandge- 
malde,  see  Topogr.  Index,  p.  476.  under  Pantheon. 

Cupids  as  bakers  and  as  niakers  of  wreaths  [p.  98]  :  Museo  Borb  ,  vol.  4. 
pi.  47,  and  vol.  6.  pi.  51  ;  Roux,  Herculanum  et  Pompe'i  (text  by  Barre  ;  8 
vols.,  Paris.  1840).  vol.  2.  pi.  83.  84;  Helbig.  Wandgemalde.  nos.  yjj,  800; 
Jahn,  Abhandlungen  der  Konigl.  sachsichen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften, 
philolog-hist.  Classe,  vol.  5  (1870).  pp.  315-318  and  pi.  6. 

Statues  found  in  the  imperial  chapel  [p.  98]  :  Mau.  Statua  di  Marcello 
nipote  di  Augusto.  Atti  della  reale  Accademia  di  Napoli.  vol.  15  (1891).  pp. 
133-151  ;  Helbig,  Osservazioni  sopra  i  ritratti  di  Fulvia  e  di  Ottavia.  iMon. 
dei  Lincei,  vol.  i  (1890),  pp.  573-590.  Both  these  articles  are  summarized  by 
Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  6  (1891),  p.  268,  and  vol.  7  (1892),  pp.  169-171.  The 
statues  were  published  with  the  names  of  Livia  and  Drusus,  son  of  Tiberius, 
in  the  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  3,  pi.  37,  38  ;  the  right  hand  of  Octavia  is  restored. 

Destruction  wrought  by  the  earthquake  of  6t,  [p.  loi]  :  this  matter  will  be 
discussed  in  an  early  number  of  the  Roniische  Mittheilungen. 

CHAPTER    XIII.      THE    SANCTUARY    OF    THE    CITY    LARES 

Excavation  (1817),  remains:  Fiorelli.  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i.  pt.  3, 
p.  196;  Mazois.  Les  ruines  de  Pompei.  vol.  3.  pp.  50-51,  pi.  37;  Nissen, 
Pomp.  Studien.  pp.  303-306. 

fdentifcation  and  restoration  :  Mau.  Der  Stadtische  Larentempel  in  Pom- 
peji. Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896).  pp.  285-301. 


522 


POMPEII 


CHAPTER   XIV.     THE   TEMPLE   OF    VESPASIAN 


Excavation  (in  1817),  remains,  identification,  restoration  :  Fiorelli.  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  3,  p.  198  ;  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei,  vol.  4,  pp.  33-36, 
pi.  12-15  ;  Garrucci,  L'Augusteum.  la  curia  degli  Augustales,  il  Chalcidicum, 
Taedes  FortunaeAugustae,  Bullettinoarcheologico  Napolitano,  Nuova  Serie,  vol. 
2  (1854),  pp.  4-6,  published  also  in  his  (2uestioni  Pompeiane  (Naples,  1853), 
pp.  74-79;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  270-275;  Mau.  Osservazioni  sul 
creduto  tempio  del  Genio  di  Augusto  in  Pompei,  Atti  della  reale  Accademii 
di  Napoli,  vol.  16  (1894),  pp.  181-188;  Weichardt,  Pompeji  vor  der  Zer- 
storung,  pp.  95-101.  For  the  restoration  given  in  Fig.  46,  see  Mau,  Der 
Tempel  des  Vespasian  in  Pompeii,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  15  (1900),  pp.  133-138. 

CHAPTER  XV.     THE   BUILDING   OF   EUMACHIA 

Exxavation  (1814-1818)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  3,  pp.  154- 
158,  195,  198,  210-213,  vol.  2,  pp.  7-19,  vol.  3,  pp.  6,  13,  16,  23. 

Remains,  identification,  restoration :  Bechi,  Del  calcidico  e  della  cripta  di 
Eumachia  scavati  nel  Foro  di  Pompeji  I'anno  1820  (Naples,  1820)  ;  Gell, 
Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1832),  vol.  i,  pp.  13-26;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  di  Pompeii, 
vol.  3,  pp.  42-47,  pi.  22-27  ;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  287-303.  For  the 
restorations  given  in  the  text,  see  Mau,  Osservazioni  sull"  edifizio  di  Eumachia 
in  Pompei,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  7  (1892),  pp.  1 13-143. 

Inscriptions  [pp.  1 11,  1 12]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  808-815. 

Decoration  [p.  in]  :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3.  pp.  45-46, 
pi.  26,  27  ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  334-335?  4io,  and 
pi.  10;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  no.  1094  r. 

CHAPTER   XVI.     THE    COMITIUM 

Remains,  identification :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3.  pp.  58-59; 
NisSEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  185-193  ;  Overbeck-Mau.  Pompeji.  pp.  136-138. 

CHAPTER   XVII.     THE    MUNICIPAL    BUILDINGS 

Excavation  (1814),  remains,  identification  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  I.  pt.  3,  pp.  154-159,  vol.  2,  p.  160;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei, 
vol.  3,  p.  52,  pi.  38;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien.  pp.  306-311  :  Overbeck-Mau 
Pompeji,  pp.  139-142. 

CHAPTER   XVIII.     THE    TEMPLE    OF    VENUS    POMPEIANA 

Excavation,  remains,  identification:  Not.  d.  scavi.  1899,  pp.  17-23^  19°°' 
pp.  27-30.  In  these  reports  the  temple  is  assigned  to  the  worship  of  Augustus, 
the  history  of  the  building  also  being  misunderstood.  For  a  justification  of 
the  interpretation  of  the  remains  given  in  the  text,  see  Mau,  Der  Tempel  der 
^'enus  Pompeiana.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  15  (1900),  pp.  270-308  and  pi.  7-8. 


APPENDIX  523 

CHAPTER  XIX.  THE  TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNA  AUGUSTA 

Excavation  (1823-1824)  :  FiORiiixi,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  84-85, 
91,  95-98. 

Remains,  resforafioii :  M.\zois.  Les  mines  de  Pompei.  vol.  4.  pp.  45-48,' 
pi.  24-26;    Gell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of   1832).  vol,   i.  pp.  69-82:    Ni.ssi-:\,  , 
Pomp.   Studien,  pp.    178-184;    M.\u.   Der   Tempel   der  Fortuna  Augusta  in 
Pompeji.  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.   11    (1896),  pp.   269-284;  Weichardt,  Pompeji 
vor  der  Zerstorung,  pp.  85-93. 

Inscriptions  [pp.  130.  132]:  C.  I.  L.  X.  820-828. 

CHAPTER  XX.  THE  FORUM  TRIANGULARE  AND  THE  GREEK 

TEMPLE 

Excavation  of  the  Forum  and  the  temple  (1767- 1797)  :  FlORELLi,  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  i.  pt.  i,  pp.  211,  276.  285,  286,  297.  307.  308,  pt.  2.  pp.  63-65. 

Remains  of  the  ietnple,  restoration  :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3,  » 
pp.  17-22,  pi.  8-10.  Especially  attractive  are  the  sketches  and  restorations 
given  by  Weichardt,  Pompeji  vor  der  Zerstorung,  pp.  17-33,  P^-  i?  2  (repro- 
duced in  our  pi.  3),  and  3.  The  best  description  of  the  remains  of  the  temple 
is  given  by  Koldewey  and  Puchsteix,  Die  griechischen  Tempel  in  Unterita-  • 
lien  und  Sicilien  (Berlin,  1899),  pp.  45-49  and  pi.  5;  their  conclusions  are 
criticised  by  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  15  (1900),  pp.  126-128.  See  also 
VON  DuHN  and  J  ACOBi,  Der  griechische  Tempel  in  Pompeji  (Heidelberg.  1890)  ; 
Sogliaxo,  II  tempio  nel  Foro  triangolare  di  Pompei,  Mon.  dei  Lincei,  vol.  i 
(iS9o),pp.  189-200;  both  these  contributions  are  reviewed  by  Mau,  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  6  (1891),  pp.  258-267. 

The  colonnade  contained  ninety-five  Doric  columns  [p.  135]  :   there  were  in 
addition   two   half-columns   at   the  south   end;    Plan   HI.  in   this   respect   is    '-^ 
ine.xact.     The  number  of  columns  is  often  given  as  one  hundred. 

Inscriptions  of  the  sundial  and  the  pedestal  [p.  136]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  831,  832. 

N'nmber  of  columns  in  the  temple  front  iineven  [p.  137]  :  the  steps  are  too 
broad  for  one  intercolumniation,  and  mnst  have  been  designed  for  two,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  62. 

Human  bones  found  in  the  enclosure  [p.  139]  :  Romaxelli,  Viaggio  a 
Pomi^ei  (1811  ),  p.  104  (Edit.  2,  181 7.  p.  182),  "\"\  furono  trovati  molti  avanzi 
di  cadaveri  sepolti."  Excavations  made  here  at  the  suggestion  of  Professor 
Mau  brought  to  light  few  traces  of  bones. 

Oscan  inscription  [p.  139]  :  Zvetaieff,  Sylloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum 
(Leipzig,  1868),  no.  69  and  pi.  13;  von  Planta,  Grammatik  der  Oskisch- 
Umbrischen  Inschriften,  vol.  2.  p.  501  ;  Conway.  Italic  Dialects,  vol.  i.  p.  63. 

Oscan  inscription  [p.  140]  :  see  references  below,  pp.  530-531. 

CHAPTER    XXI.      THE    LARGE    THEATRE 
Excavation  of  the  tuo  theatres  and  the  court  behind  the  Large  Theatre  (July, 


524  POMPEII 

1764,10  March.  1765:  and  December.  1791.  to  February.  1796):  Fiorelli, 
Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i.  pt.  i.  pp.  158-165,  pt.  2.  pp.  46-63.  For  the  Small 
Theatre,  see  also  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  pp.  69.  75. 

Paintings  at  Pompeii  relati)ig  to  the  stage:  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos. 
1464-1476;  SOGLIANO,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane,  nos.  740-752;  Maass, 
Affreschi  scenici  di  Pompeii,  Ann.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  n  (1881),  pp.  109-159, 
and  Mon.  delF  Inst.,  vol.  11,  pi.  30-32. 

Remains  of  the  Large  Theatre:  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei,  vol.  4.  pp. 
55-70,  pi.  27-34:  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  352-357  ;  Nissex, 
Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  232-253:  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  153-176. 

The  tribunals  [p.  145]  :  it  is  evident  from  the  language  of  Suetonius  (Div. 
Aug.  44,  solis  virginibus  Vestalibus  locum  in  theatro  separatim  et  contra  prae- 
toris  tribunal  dedit)  that  opposite  the  place  set  aside  for  the  praetor,  which 
was  called  tribunal,  there  was  another  likewise  reserved.  In  our  theatre  the 
two  platforms  mentioned  correspond  exactly  with  this  arrangement,  and  there 
is  no  other  part  of  the  structure  to  which  the  word  tribi/natia.  in  the  inscrip- 
tion of  the  Holconii  (p.  148),  could  properly  be  applied.  We  are  safe  there- 
fore in  calling  the  platforms  tribunals. 

W'all paijiting.  sho-iuing  theatre  police  seated  in  niches  in  front  of  the  stage 
[p.  146]  :  found  in  the  casa  della  fontana  grande :  described  by  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  no.  1468;  figured  in  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  4,  pi.  18,  and  in 
Wieseler,  Theatergebaude  und  Denkmailer  des  Biihnenwesens  bei  den 
Griechen  und  Romern  (Gottingen,  1851),  pi.  11,  2.  A  similar  figure  sitting  in 
a  shallow  niche  has  been  found  on  a  wall  in  the  eighth  region  (V'lII.  11.  23)  : 
see  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  3  (1888),  p.  202.  no.  12.  On  the  need  of  police  to 
keep  order  in  Roman  theatres,  see  the  references  given  by  Marqu.^rdt, 
Rom.  Staatsverwaltung.  vol.  3  (Edit.  2).  pp.  541-542:  but  cf.  Kortixg, 
Geschichte  des  griechischen  und  romischen  Theaters  ( Paderborn,  1897),  p.  367. 

Place  of  stage  machinery  [p.  147]  :  Pollux,  Onomast.  IV.  128. 

Inscriptions  relating  to  Act  ins  Anicetns  [p.  148]  :  inscription  found  at 
Puteoh,  C.  I.  L.  X.  1946;  graffiti.  C.  I.  L.  W .  2155,  and  Index,  p.  233.  under 
Actius  and  Anicetus;  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  5395. 

Assemblies  in  the  theatre  [p.  14S]  :  at  Tarentum  (282  B.C.),  App.  De 
rebus  Samnit.  VII.  11 :  Dio  Cass.  Frag.  xxix.  5:  at  Pergamus.  Plut.  Sulla, 
II.     Cf.  iMulIer,  Biihnenalterthumer.  pp.  73-75. 

inscriptions  found  in  the  theatre  [pp.  148-150]  :  monumental,  C.  I.  L.  X. 
833-843;  painted  inscriptions  and  graffiti,  C.  I.  L.  IV.  pp.  63,  153-157. 

The  stage  and  the  orchestra  in  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  theatre  [p.  150]  : 
Vitr.  V.  vi-viii. 

The  problem  of  the  stage  in  the  Greek  theatre  [p.  151]  :  Doerpfeld  and 
Reisch.  Das  griechische  Theater,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  des  Dionysos- 
Theaters  in  Athen  und  anderer  griechischer  Theater  (Athens  and  Leipzig, 
1896),  particularly  pp.  341-365  ;  Doerpfeld,  Das  griechische  Theater  Vi- 
truvs,  Athen.  Mitth..  vol.  22  (1897).  pp.  439-462  ;  vol.  23  (1898),  pp.  326- 
356.      A  convenient  .summary  of  Doerpfeld's  conclusions  and  of  the  litera- 


APPENDIX  525 

ture  of  the  subject  to   1898  is  given  by  Frazer.  Pausanias's  Description  of 
Greece,  voL  3,  pp.  254-255.  and  vol.  5.  pp.  582-584. 

Tlie  stage  of  the  Large  Theatre  at  Potupeii  [p.  152]  :  Puchsteix  and  Kol-  - 
DEWEV,  Berliner  Philologisclie  Wocbenschrift,   1896,  pp.  477-478;  Archaolo-   ■ 
gischer  Anzeiger.  Beiblatt  zum  Jahrb.  des  Inst..  1896,  pp.  30,  40;  PuCHSTEiN, 
Die  griechische  Blihne  (Berlin.  1901).  pp.  75-77. 

CHAPTER  XXII.   THE  SMALL  THEATRE 

Excavation,  re>Jiai>is :  see  references  to  Chap.  XXI. 

Decoration  (second  style)  :  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  • 

24S-249. 

Inscriptions :  C.  I.  L  X.  844,  845.  Theft  of  the  bronze  letters  of  the  in- 
scription of  Oculatitis  I'erus  [p.  156]:  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i.pt.  3, 
pp.  231,  277  ;  Zaxgemeister.  Sopra  1"  iscnzione  del  teatro  piccolo  di  Pompei, 
Bull,  deir  Inst..  1866.  pp.  30-31. 

Gains  Quinctius  I'algns  [p.  153]  :  Cic.  De  lege  agraria,  III;  C.I.L.  IX. 
1140,  X.  5282  (cf.  Buech?:ler,  Carmina  Latina  epigraphica,  vol.  i,  Leipzig, 
1895,  no.  12)  :  DE.SSAU,  C.  Quinctius  Valgus,  Der  Erbauer  des  Amphitheaters 
zu  Pompeii,  Hermes,  vol.  18  (1883).  pp.  620-622. 

The  narrow  doors  at  the  rear  of  the  stage  designed  to  give  access  to  the    < 
tribunalia  [p.  156]  :   Kel.sev,  The  Stage  Entrances  of  the  Small  Theatre  at 
Pompeii.  American  Journal   of  Archaeology,  series  2,  vol.  4  (1900),  p.  150, 
also  vol.  6  ( 1902). 

CHAPTER    XXllI.      THE    THEATRE   COLONNADE 

Exca7<ation  (October  25,  1766,  to  April  7,  1769,  and  December  10,  1791, 
to  February  20.  1794)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  195-228, 
pt.  2.  pp.  46-48.  51.  52,  54.  151-153.  pt.  3.  p.  273. 

Remains,  idcntifcafi >n.  restoration  :  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei,  vol. 
3.  pp.  12-15,  pi.  2-6;  Cell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1852),  p.  184;  Garrucci, 
II  Ludus  Gladiatorius,  ovvero  Convitti  dei  Gladiatori.  in  his  Questioni  Pom- 
peiane  (Naples,  1S53),  pp.  1-8;  Nlssen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  253-262.  The 
suggestion  has  lately  been  made  that  the  colonnade  may  have  been  designed 
as  the  Gymnasium  of  pre-Roman  Pompeii  (Petersen.  L'eber  die  sogen.  Gla- 
diatorenkaserne  in  Pompeji,  Rcim.  Mitth..  vol.  14  (1899).  pp.  103-104). 

Graffiti:  C.I.L.  IV.  pp.  157-159. 

Exhibitions  of  gladiators  [p.  161]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  1074,  and  references  to  Chap. 
XXX. 

Paintings  [pp.  161-162]  :   Helbig.  Wandegemalde,  nos.  322,  1512. 

CHAPTER  XXIV.   THE  PALAESTRA 

Excavation  (April  13  to  August  31.  1797)  :  Fiorelli.  Pomp.  ant.  hist.. 
vol.  I.  pt.  2.  pp.  66-68 

Remains,  identification :   Mazois,  vol.  3,  pp.   25-26.  pi.    11,   12;    Kis.sEX, 


526  POMPEII 

Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  158-170;  Mau,  Der  Fundort  des  Xeapler  Doryphoros, 
Strena  Helbigiana  (Leipzig,  1900),  pp.  184-187. 

Measuronents.  showing  conformity  to  the  Oscan  standard  [p.  165]  :  Mau, 
Pomp.  BeitrJige,  pp.  21-23. 

Oscan  i>iscription  [p.  165]  :  ZvETAiEFF.  Sylloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum, 
no.  63,  pi.  11;  VON  Plaxta,  Grammatik  der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte. 
vol.  2,  p.  499 :  CoxwAY,  Italic  Dialects,  vol.  i,  no.  42. 

Doryphonis  [p.  166]  :  reproduction  on  a  larger  scale,  Bruxn  and  Bruck- 
MAXX.  Denkmaler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculplur,  no.  273. 

CHAPTER   XX\'.      THE   TEMPLE    OF    ISIS 

The  worship  of  /sis  outside  of  Egypt:  Lafaye,  Histoire  du  culte  des 
divinites  d'Alexandrie,  Serapis,  Isis,  Harpocrate  et  Anubis,  hors  de  I'Egypte, 
depuis  les  origines  jusqu'k  la  uaissance  de  Tecole  neo-Platonicienne  (Par's, 
1883)  :  for  the  literature  relating  to  the  worship  of  Isis  in  Italy,  see  Roscher, 
Ausfiihrliches  Lexikon  der  griechischen  und  romischen  Mythologie,  vol.  2, 
pt.  I,  pp.  398-412. 

Excavation  of  the  temple  (December  22.  1764,  to  September  27.  1766)  : 
FiORELLi,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i.  pp.  164-194. 

Inscriptions  relating  to  the  temple :  Pikaxesi  (see  below),  pi.  70-72  :  C.  I.  L. 

X.  846-851 .  Inscription  found  at  Puteoli  [p.  169]  :  C.I.L.I.577.  X.  1781; 
WiEGAXD,  Die  puteolanische  Bauinschrift  sachlich  erlautert.  Jahrbiicher  fiir 
classische  Philologie,  Supplementband  20  (1894).  pp.  659-778.  An  interesting 
graffito  relating  to  the  worship  of  Isis  was  found  in  the  house  of  the  Silver 
Wedding  in  1892;  see  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  8  (1893).  p.  57.  no.  7  (cf.  also 
DE  Rossi,  Roma  sotterranea,  vol.  2,  pp.  14-15). 

Remains,  restoration:  S0GLI.A.X0.  Aedis  Isidis  Pompeiana.  not  yet  pub- 
lished [see  Preface,  p.  vi.]  ;  Piraxesi.  Antiquites  de  Pompei  (designs  made 
about  1788),  vol.  2  (=  vol.  26  of  Opera,  in  27  vols.),  pi.  59-72  ;  Mazois,  Les 
mines  de  Pompei.  vol.  4,  p.  24,  pi.  7-1 1  :  NiccoLixi.  Le  case  ed  i  monument! 
di  Pompei  (Naples,  1854-1895),  vol.  i.  pt.  3,  end  (12  pi):  NisSEX,  Pomp. 
Studien,  pp.  170-175,  346-349:  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  p.  23:  Weichardt, 
Pompeji  vor  der  Zerstorung,  pp.  103- 113. 

Statues  —  Bacchus\j^.  170]:  .Museo.  Borb..  vol.  9.  pi.  11  :  Roux.  Hercula- 
num  et  Pompei,  vol.  6.  pi.  21.  Isis  [p.  176]  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  14,  pi.  35. 
Hertn  of  Sorex  [p.  176],  Piraxesi.  Antiquites  de  Pompei,  vol.  2.  pi.  72.  The 
statue  of  Venus  has  disappeared :  OvERBECK-M  \u,  Pompeji,  note  208,  p.  649. 

Paintings  [pp.  172  ct  seq^l:  Helbig.  Wandgemalde,  nos.  1-6,  135,  138, 
391  1^,962,  1013,  1096-99,  1103.  1271.  1292.  1571.  1576-1577.  Paintings  from 
Herculaneum  [p.  178]  :  Roux,  Herculanum  et  Pompdi.  vol.  2,  pi.  68,  69: 
Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  iiii,  11 12. 

.-/  left  hand  carried  in  procession  in  honor  of  Isis  [p.  173]  :  .•\pul.  Metam. 

XI.  x. 

Service  described  by  Apuleius  [p.  176]  :   Metam.  XI.  xx.     While  the  people 


APPENDIX  527 

were  praying  the  priest  made  a  circuit  of  the  altars,  which  were  evidently,  as  at 
Pompeii,  distributed  about  the  temple  in  the  court. 

Perseus  rescuing  Andronieda  [p.  179]  :   that  the  male  figure  is  intended  to 
represent  Perseus  and  not  Hermes  is  certain  from  the  description  of  the  figure 
when  first  excavated  —  '"alia  cinta  tiene  una  testa  alata"  (Fiorelli,  Pomp.  *, 
ant.   hist.,  vol.   i,  pt.   i,  p.   171).      All   trace   of  the   Medusa   head   has   now 
disappeared. 

Initiation  into  the  mysteries  of  his  [p.  182]  :  Apul.  Metam.  XI.  xxi.  x.xiii. 

CHAPTER   XXVI.      THE    TEMPLE    OF   ZEUS    MILICHIUS 

Excavation  (September  27  to  October  18,  1766;  March  15-22  and  June  14, 
1798)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  194-195.  pt.  2,  pp.  70-71. 

Remains,  identification,  restoration :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompdi,  vol.  4, 
p.  22,  pi.  4-6;  Nlssen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  175-177,  535-536;  Mau,  Pomp.  " 
Beitrage,  pp.  13-15,  227-232  ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Waudmalerei,  pp.  60- 
61  ;  Mau,  Das  Capitolium  und  der  Tempel  des  Zeus  Meilichios  in  Pompeji,    » 
Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  II  (1896),  pp.  141-149.     An  impossible_i;gstoration  is  gij^eii 
by  Weichardt,  Pompeji  vor  der  Zerstorung,  pp.  1 16-123. 

Two  statues  and  a  bust  of  terra  cotta  [p.  184]  :  von  Rohden,  Die  Terra- 
cotten  von  Pompeji  (Stuttgart,  1880),  pp.  42-43,  pi.  29. 

Oscaii  inscription  [p.  184]  :  Z\'ETAIEff,  Sylloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum, 
no.62.pl.  10;  VON  Planta,  Grammatik  der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte, 
vol.  2,  p.  499;  Conway,  Italic  Dialects,  vol.  i.  pp.  58-59;  Nissen,  Pomp. 
Studien,  pp.  531-536. 

CHAPTER   XXVII.      THE    STABIAN    BATHS 

Roman  baths  in  general:  Marquardt,   Privatleben  der  Romer,  Edit.  2,    • 
pt.  I.  pp.  269-297  ;  Mau,  article  Bader  in  the  Pauly-Wissowa  Realencyclopadie, 
vol.  2,  pt.  2,  pp.  2743-2758;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  152-155. 

Baths  in  Pompeii —  ///  tlie  second  Insula  of  Region  VIII :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  3  (1888),  pp.  194-205,  vol.  5  (1890).  pp.  130-141.  vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  218- 
219.  In  the  so-called  villa  of  Julia  Felix :  Chambalu,  Die  wiederverschiittete 
Besitzung  der  Julia  Felix  beim  Amphitheater  in  Pompeji,  Festschrift  zur  43'°" 
Versammlung  deutscher  Philologen  und  Schulmanner  dargeboten  von  den 
hciheren  Lehranstalten  Kolns  (Cologne.  1895),  and  the  review  of  this  pamphlet 
by  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  225-227.  For  the  baths  of  M. 
Crassus  Fnigi,  see  above,  p.  408  :  for  the  baths  in  private  houses  at  Pompeii, 
Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp-  149-151.  and  above,  pp.  267,  306-307  (both  in  the 
house  of  the  Silver  Wedding),  346,  357.  362-363. 

Excavation  of  the  Stabian  Baths  (i 854-1 857;  the  official  reports  are 
meagre)  :  Fiorelli.  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  589-658  ;  cf.  also  Minervini, 
Notizie  de'  piu  recenti  scavi  di  Pompei.  Bull.  Archeologico  Napolitano,  Nuova 
Serie,  vols.  2-6  (1853-1858). 

Remains :    MiCHAELis,  Die    neuen    Biider    in   Pompeji,    Archaologische 


528  POMPEII 

Zeitung,  vol.  17  (1859),  pp.  17-32,  37-46;  Finati,  Relazione  degli  scavi  di 
Pompei,  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  16(15  PP-  text  and  pi.  A-B)  ;  Niccolini,  Le  case 
ed  i  monumenti  di  Pompei,  vol.  i.  pt.  3(12  pp..  8  pis.)  ;  NisSEN,  Pomp.  Studien, 
pp.  140-158;  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  117-151:  Overbeck-Mau.  Pompeji, 
pp.  215-233;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  p.  60. 

Paintings:  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  30  (p.  11),  44,  416,  432,  1016, 
1057,  1260/;,  1545  ;  see  below,  pi.  XIII. 

Origin  of  the  balneae  pensiles  [p.  187]  :  Valer.  Max.  IX.  I.  i  ;  Plin.  N.  H. 
IX.  Liv.  168. 

The  anteroom  of  the  men's  baths  [p.  190]  :  in  the  front  part  of  this  was 
once  a  shallow  basin,  undoubtedly  for  preliminary  cleaning  before  one  entered 
the  frigidarium  ;  cf.  p.  197. 

Bath  basin  in  the  men's  tepidariiim  [p.  192]  :  cf.  Kuszinsky.  Aquincum 
(Budapest,  1889),  p.  62. 

The  poet  declaiming  in  the  bath  [p.  192]  :  Petr.  Sat.  xci ;  Hor.  Sat.  I.  iv. 
74-76;  and  cf.  Mayor's  note  to  Juvenal  i,  17  and  iii.  9. 

Fiilvinns  [p.  ic)-^,  testiido  alvei  [p.   194]  :    \'itr.  V.  x.  Testudo  alvei : 

Mau,  Fulcra  lectorum  —  testudines  alveorum,  Nachrichten  von  der  Kdnigl. 
Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften  zu  Gottingen,  1896,  pp.  76-82;  von  Duhn 
and  Jacobi,  Der  griechische  Tempel  in  Pompeji,  jjp.  33-35  and  pi.  9. 

Inscriptions — Vuliiis  and  Aniniiis  [p.  195]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  829.  Vaccula 
[p.  197]  :  C.  I.  L.  I\^  Suppl.  I.  no.  3340,  VI.  Atiniiis  [p.  200]  ;  Zvetaieff, 
Svlloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum,  no.  66,  pi.  13;  vox  Planta,  Grammatil:  der 
Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte,  vol.  2,  p.  500;  Conway,  Italic  Dialects,  vol.  i, 
p.  61. 

Destrictarium  [p.  195]  :  all  the  rooms  at  tlie  left  of  the  palaestra  are  of 
later  date  than  the  inscription  ;  the  present  destrictarium  probably  takes  the 
place  of  an  earlier  one. 

Improvement  of  the  arrangements  for  heating  [p.  196]  :  the  liollow  walls 
of  the  caldarium  are  made  with  liollow  tiles,  while  in  the  tepidarium  tegulae 
mammatae  are  used ;  for  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  successive  changes,  see 
Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  131-141. 

The  brazier  of  Vaccula  [p.  197]  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2, 
pp.  649-650. 

Her)nes  in  thegvtiinasium  at  Phigalia  [p.  200]  :  Pans.  VIII.  XXXIX.  4  (6)  ; 
cf.  also  IV.  XXXII.  I. 

CHAPTER   XXVIII.     THE    BATHS    NEAR   THE    FORUM 

Excavation  [1824-1825]  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  106, 
107-116,  118,  121-125,  128.  vol.  3,  p.  15. 

Remains:  Bechi,  Terme  Pompeiane.  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  2,  pi.  49-52  (text, 
31  pp.);  Brulloff,  Thermes  di  Pompei  (Paris,  1829),  10  large  pis.  ;  Gell. 
Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1832),  vol.  i,  pp.  83-141,  vol.  2,  pp.  80-94;  Mazois.  Les 
ruines  de  Pompei,    vol.  3.  pp.  67-77.  pi.  47-50;   Zahn,  Neuentdeckte  Wand- 


APPENDIX  529 

<j;emalde  in  Pompeji  (Stuttgart,  1828).  pi.  2-5  ;  Zahn,  Die  schonsten  Orna-    Z 
mente  uiid  merkwLiidiosten  Gemalde  aus  Pompeji.  Herkiilanum  und  Stabiae. 
nebst    einigen  Grundrissen  und  Ansichten   (3  parts,  here  cited  as  volumes, 
302  pis.  in  30  Heften,  Berlin.  1827-1859),  vol.  i,  pi.   10.  46,  76,  94;  Nissen,    . 
Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  128-135  \  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  218-227. 

/nsiriptioiis  of  the  builders  [p.  203],  of  Vaccula  [p.  205],  of  Aper  and 
Rufits  [p.  206]  :  C.  I.  L.  X.  817-819. 

CHAPTER   XXIX.     THE    CENTRAL    BATHS 

Excavation  (1876-1878),  remains:  Mau,  Bull,  dell'  Inst..  1877,  pp.   214-    ' 
223,  1878,  pp.  251-254.         Laconiciiin :  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  144-145.      » 

CHAPTER   XXX.     THE    AMPHITHEATRE 

Of  amphitheatres  in  general,  and  gladiatorial  sports:  Friedlaender, 
Darstellungen  aus  der  Sittengeschichte  Roms  in  der  Zeit  von  August  bis  zum 
Ausgang  der  Antonine,  Edit.  6  (3  parts,  here  cited  as  volumes,  Leipzig, 
1888-1890),  vol.  2,  pp.  358-435,  Edit.  7,  vol.  2,  pp.  45-66;  briefer  statement 
by  Friedlaender  in  Marquardt's  Staatsverwaltung,  Edit.  2.  vol.  3.  pp.  554- 
565;  Meier,  De  gladiatura  Romana  quaestiones  selectae  (Bonn,  1881). 

Gladiatorial  co/nbats  in  Campania  and  in  Rome  [pp.  212-213]  :  Strabo, 
V.  IV.  12  [p.  250,  c]  ;  Valer.  Max.  II.  iv.  7;  Liv.  Epit.  xvi.  and  XXIII.  xxx. 
15.  For  the  games  following  Caesar's  triumph,  see  Suet.  Div.  Jul,  xxxix. 
App.  Bel.  Civ.  II.  XV.  102  and  Dio.  Cas.  xliii.  22. 

Excavation  of  the  Amphitheatre  (1748,  1813-1816)  :  Fiorelli.  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  5-6,  pt.  3,  pp.  114  et  seq.,  185,  189. 

Remains:  Mazois,  Les  Runes  de  Pompei,  vol.  4,  pp.  77-86,  pi.  43-47; 
Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  69-74 ;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien, 
pp.  97-127. 

Paintings  [pp.  213,  214],  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  15 14,  151 5,  1519; 
cf.  also  nos.  15 12-15 13,  15 16-15 18,  and  Sogliano,  Le  pitture  murali  Cam- 
pane,  nos.  665-668. 

Inscriptions  relating  to  the  building,  or  found  on  it  [pp.  212,  218,  219]  : 
C.  I.  L.  X.  852-859:  painted  inscriptions  and  graffiti,  C.  I.  L.  IV.  pp.  7,  64- 
66,  159. 

Inscriptions  relating  to  the  games  [pp.  221  et  seq.] — announcements : 
C.  i.  L.  IV.  1177-1204,  Suppl.  3881-3884.  Programme  [p.  223]  :  C.  I.  L. 
IV.  2508.  Custos,  ostiarius  ab  amphitJieatro  [p.  225]  :  C.  I.  L.  VI.  6226. 

6228.  Inscription  of  Salviiis  Capito  [p.  225]  :  C.  I.  L.  IX.  465,  466  (cf.  also 
C.  I.  L.  X.  4920).  Names  of  gladiators,  u<itJi  their  records  [pp.  225-226]  : 
C.  I.  L.  IV.,  see  Index,  under  gladiatores,  p.  255.  Graffiti  in  the  house 
on  Nola  Street  [p.  226]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  4277-4393;  and  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  5  (1890),  pp.  25-39,  64-65,  vol.  7  (1892),  p.  23. 

Combat  between  the  Pompeians  and  the  Nucerians  [pp.  220,  221]  :  Tac. 


530  POMPEII 

Ann.  XIV.  xvil.  Painting  (Fig.  loi  ;   found  Ins.  I.   III.  23),  DE  Petra, 

L"  Anfiteatro  pompeiano  rappresentato  in  un  antico  dipinto,  giornale  degli 
scavi  di  Pompei.  Nuova  Serie.  vol.  i  (1869),  pp.  185-187.  pi.  8:  Matz,  Bull, 
deir  Inst.,  1869,  pp.  240-241  ;  Sogliaxo.  Le  pitture  niurali  Campane,  no.  604. 
/nscriptiofis  [see  p.  492]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1293  (with  caricature,  figured  Aluseo 
Borb.,  vol.  6.  pi.  C).  1329.  2183. 

CHAPTER  XXXI.      STREETS,  WATER   SYSTEM.  AND  WAYSIDE 

SHRINES 

The  streets  [pp.  227-229]  :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  i,  pp.  25- 
26,  pi.  2.  3,  14.  15.  35.  yj,  vol.  2.  pp.  35-39.  pi.  2-8;  NissEN,  Pomp. 
.Studien,  pp.  516-572.  Inscriptions  on  the  pa7'enient  [p.  228],  C.  I.  L.  X. 
870.  871. 

T/ie  water  system  [pp.  230-233]  :  Mazois.  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  3, 
p.  27.  pi.  13;  Mukaxo,  Pompei — donde  venivano  le  acque  potabili  ai  castelli 
acquarii  (Naples.  1894)  ;  review  of  Murano"s  treatise  by  Mau.  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  216-218.  Age  of  tlie  aqueduct  supplying  Pompeii :  Mau, 
Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1895)  pp.  49-51.  Recent  investigation  of  the  system 
of  sewers :  Not.  d.  scavi,  1900,  pp.  587-599.  Water  towers  of  Constantinop/e 
[p.  232]  :  vox  Hammer,  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs  (10  vols..  Pest, 
1827-1835),  vol.  7.  pp.  422,  598-599;  cf.  also  Pardoe,  Beauties  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  (London,  1839).  PP-  ~4-~~S- 

IVayside  shrines  [233-236]  :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei.  vol.  2,  pi.  6 
Gell.  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1852),  pp.  97-98:  Overbeck-M.\u.  Pompeji 
pp.  242-244.  Paintings  of  divinities  on  the  outside  of  houses  [p.  236] 
Helbig.  Wandgemalde,  nos.  7-28;  Sogliano,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane 
nos.  1-4:  serpents.  Helbig.  nos.  29,  30;  Sogliano,  nos.  5-8.  Painting  oj 
the  twelve  gods :  Gerhard.  Intorno  la  pittura  Pompeiana  rappresentante 
dodici  dei,    Ann.   dell'   Inst.,  vol.   22    (1850).  pp.   206-214.  Inscriptioti 

[p.  236]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  813:  cf.  Pers.  Sat.  I.  113. 

CHAPTER   XXXIl.      THE    DEFENCES    OF   THE    CITY 

Excavation  of  walls,  gates,  towers :  Fiorelli.  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i, 
pp.  154,  234-236,  pt.  3,  pp.  64-69.76,  84-88.  96-97,  111-124,  131,  143-15I' 
160,  168-170,  vol.  2,  pp.  I,  501-506.  530.  593-597. 

Renmins :  Mazois.  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  i,  pp.  33-37,  52-53,  pi-  10- 
13,  35-37;  Gell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1852),  pp.  87-96,  98  :  Nissen.  Pomp. 
Studien,  pp.  457-516;  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  pp.  211-215,  235-252;  Mau, 
Geschicht  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  57-59. 

Oscan  inscriptions  [p.  240]  :  Zvetaieff,  Sylloge  inscriptionum  Oscarum, 
nos.  80-83,  pi.  14  (nos.  7,  8),  pi.  15,  pi.  16  (no.  4) ;  vox  Plaxta,  Grammatik 
der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte,  vol.  2,  p.   503 :  Coxway,  Italic  Dialects, 


APPENDIX  531 

vol.  I.  pp.  69-71  ;  Degerixg,  Ueber  die  militarischen  Wegweiser  in  Pompeji, 
Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  13  (1898),  pp.  124-146;  Mau,  Die  Oskischen  Wegweiser- 
inscliriften  in  Pompeji,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  14  (1899),  pp.  105-113. 

The  Stabian  Gate  [p.  242]  :    Minervini,  Strada  e  porta  Stabiana,  Bull.  - 
Arch.  Napolitano,  Nuova  Serie,  vol.  i  (1853),  pp.  186-187  and  pi.  8,  fig.  10; 
FiORELLi,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  pp.  78-79,  pi.  14,  fig.  2. 

Minerva  as  patron  divinity  of  city  gates  [p.  242]  :  that  is,  according  to  ^ 
Greek   usage,  an  indication  of  the  strength  of  Greek  influence  at  Pompeii. 
Among  the  Romans  the  divinity  of  city  gates  was  Juno.     Cf.  Serv.  Com.  in 
Verg.  ad  Aen.  II,  610. 

Inscription  of  Flacciis  and  Firmus  [p.  242]  :  CI.L.  X.  1064. 

CHAPTER    XXXIII.      THE    POMPEIAN    HOUSE 

Of  the  Ponipeian  and  the  Roman  house:  Mazois,  Essai  sur  les  habitations 
des   anciens   romains,   in  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  2,  pp.  3-34  (3  pis.)  ; 
Mazois,  Le  palais  de  Scaurus  (Paris,  18 19;  Edit.  3,  revised  by  VarcoUier,  1861)  ; 
Gell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1852),  pp.  99-141 ;  Zumpt,  Ueber  die  bauliche  Ein- 
richtung  des  romischen  Wohnhauses  (Berlin,  1844;   Edit.  2,  1852)  ;  Nissen,  - 
Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  593-668;  Viollet-le-Duc,  Histoire  de  Thabitation  hu-- 
maine  (Paris,  1875),  ^^^  English  translation  under  the  title.  The  Habitations 
of  Man  in  all  Ages  (Boston,  1876),  Chap.  18;   Lange,  Haus  und  Halle,  Stu- 
dien zur  Geschichte  des  antiken  Wohnhauses  und  der  Basilica  (Leipzig.  1885), 
especially  pp.  50-59,  244-269 ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  Das  Leben  der  Griechen  -• 
und  Romer  (Edit.  6,  Berlin,  1893),  pp.  558-580,    and    English   translation 
from  the  third  German  edition.  Life  of  the  Greeks  and    Romans  (London, 
1877),  §§  75.  76:  Marquardt,  Das  Privatleben  der  Romer  (Edit.  2,  Leipzig, 
1886).  pp.  213-250;    MiDDLETON,  article  Domus  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of-, 
Greek   and  Roman  Antiquities,  vol.   i  (Edit.  3,  London.  1890).  particularly    > 
pp.  684-687;  Monceaux,  Domus  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  < 
des  antiquites  grecques  et  romaines,  vol.  2,  pt.  i,  especially  pp.  349-362.     For 
remains   of  houses   and   villas   in   Britain,  cf.,  e.g.,  Wright,  The  Celt,  the 
Roman,  and  the  Saxon  (Edit.  4,  London,  1885),  passim;    Scarth,  Roman 
Britain  (London.  1883),  Chap.  18;  and  the  special   articles   in  Archaeologia 
(London,  1770  +). 

Inscriptions  in  Ponipeian  houses^  including  those  in  mosaic  floors:  C.  I.  L. 
X.  860-869,  872-875,  877-882. 

Fauces,  or  prothyron  [p.  248]  :  Vitr.  VI.  iv.  6;  Greexough,  The  Fauces 
of  the  Roman  House,  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology,  vol.  i  (1890), 
pp.  1-12. 

Stone  thresholds  [p.  249]  :  Ivaxoff.  Varie  specie  di  soglie  in  Pompei  ed    ^ 
indagine  sul  vero  sito  della  fauce,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  31  (1859),  pp.  82-108, 
pi.  D-F ;  and  Mon.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  6,  pi.  28. 

Dangers  of  the  streets  of  Rome  at  night  [p.  250] :  Juv.  Sat.  iii.  305-308. 

Kinds  of  atriians  [p.  250],  dimensiojis  [p.  252]  :  Vitr.  VI.  in,  I  v. 


532  POMPEII 

Waterspouts  of  the  coiiiplni'iit/H  [p.  251]  :  von  Rohden,  Die  TerracoUen 
von  Pompeji,  pi.  1-9. 

Gartibuluin  [p.  254]  :  Var.  de  Ling.  Lat.  V.  125  ;  Nissen.  Pomp.  .Studien, 
p.  641. 

Tabli7in>ii  [pp.  255-258]  :  Vitr.  \'I.  iv  (iii),  5-6;  Var.  ap.  Non.  p.  83; 
Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  643-644 

Alae  [p.  258]  :    \'iti-.  VI.  iv  (III),  4.  6. 

Peristyle  [p.  260]  :  \'itr.  VI.  iv  (iii),  7;  Nissen.  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  645- 
668;  BlE,  Zur  Geschiclite  des  Hausperistyls,  Jahrb.  des.  Inst.,  vol.  6  (1891). 
pp.  1-9. 

Tricliniiun  [p.  262]  :  Vitr.  VI.  v.  i.  TrinialcJiio' s  dining  rooms  {cena- 

tiones)  :  Petr.  Sat.  Lxxvii. 

Lares,  Genius,  and  Penates  in  house  paintings  [p.  268]  :  Helbig,  Wand- 
gemalde,  nos.  31-95;  Sogliano,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane,  nos  9-46,  63-71. 
Serpents:  ibid.,  nos.  47-62;  see  also  de  Marchi,  II  culto  privato  di  Roma 
antica,  vol.  i  (Milan,  1896),  pp.  27-144;  Jordan,  De  Larum  imaginibus  atque 
cultu,  Ann.  delP  Inst.,  vol.  34  (1862),  pp.  300-339  ;  Reifferscheid,  De  larum 
picturis  Pompeianis,  Ann.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  35  (1863),  pp.  121-134;  Jordan, 
De  Genii  et  Eponae  picturis  Pompeianis  nuper  detectis,  Ann.  delP  Inst.,  vol. 
44  (1872),  pp.  19-47,  and  pi.  B,  C;  Wissowa,  Die  Ueberlieferung  liber  die 
romischen  Penaten,  Hermes,  vol.  22  (1887),  pp.  29-57. 

Genius  of  a  woman  as  Juno  [p.  270]  :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  2  (1887), 
p.  114.  Jupiter  and  Fenus :  Helbig.  Wandgemalde,  no.  67.  Two  genii 
(Ins.  IX.  VIII.  13) :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  5  (1890).  pp.  244-245. 

Shop  fronts  [p.  276]:  cf.  Middleton,  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome  (2  vols., 
London,  1892),  vol.  i,  pp.  192-194. 

Pergula  [p.  277]:  Mau,  Sul  significato  della  parola  pergula  nell"  archi- 
tettura  antica,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  2  (1887),  pp.  214-220.  N'atus  in  pergula: 
Petr.  Sat.  Lxxiv. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.   THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SURGEON 

Excavation  (1770):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  245-246. 
248,  253  et  seq.  (p.  254,  discovery  of  the  instruments  from  which  the  house 
takes  its  name). 

Plan,  construction,  restoration:  Piranesi.  Antiquites  de  Pompei,  vol.  i. 
pi.  14-21  ;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  2,  p.  51.  and  pi.  13  (plan)  ; 
Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  pp.  79,  83;  Nissen,  Pomp. 
Studien,  pp.  402-412;  Mau,  Pomp.  Beitrage,  37-41,  49-51  (proof  that  the 
measurements  of  the  house  conform  to  the  Oscan  standard);  Overbeck-Mau, 
Pompeji.  pp.  279-281  ;  Greenough,  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology, 
vol.  I  (1890),  pp.  lo-ii  (plan  showing  conformity  of  the  chief  measurements 
to  the  proportions  recommended  bv  Vitruvius). 

Mural  paintings:  Helbig.  Wandgemalde.  nos.  1427/;,  1443.  i459-  ^'^"'^ 
pp.  cviii-cix  with  note  4  on  p.  cx.w ;   cf.  also  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec. 


APPENDIX  533 

Wandmalerei,  p.  66.  For  the  woman  painting,  see  Jahx.  Abhandlungen  der 
Konigl.  sachsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften,  philologisch-hist.  Classe, 
vol.  5,  pp.  298-305,  and  pi.  5. 

CHAPTER   XXXV.      THE    HOUSE   OF    SALLUST 

Excai'ation  (1806-1809):  FlORELLi,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  pp. 

Plan,  restoration :  Mazois,  Les  mines  de  Pompei,  vol.  2,  pp.  75-79.  pi. 
35-39;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  652-654;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji, 
pp.  300-307. 

Decoration :  above,  pp.  459-460;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei, 
pp.  17-33.  112-114,  416-417,  pi.  2;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  51,  124, 
249/^.  319,  373,  429,  465,  493,  746,  751,  900,  1055,  1255,  131 1  (cf-  Topogr. 
Index,  p.  467).  In  the  Naples  Museum  are  good  copies  of  the  paintings  that 
are  in  the  garden  and  near  the  open-air  triclinium. 

CHAPTER  XXXVI.   THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  FAUN 

Excavation  (1830-1832):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2.  pp.  240-255, 
vol.  3,  pp.  1 1 3-1 18;    Not.  d.  scavi.,  1900,  p.  31. 

Plan,  construction :  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  152-159; 
NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  655-658;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  346-353. 

Wall  decoration :  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  33-57,  no- 
il i,  122-123,  140,  162,  263-264,  pi.  2  ;  NiccoLixi,  Le  case  ed  i  monumenti  di 
Pompei,  vol.  i. 

Mosaics :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  7,  pi.  62,  vol.  8,  pi.  36-45,  vol.  9,  pi.  55,  vol.  14, 
pi.  14;  Roux,  Herculanum  et  Pompei,  vol.  5,  6th  series,  pi.  20-29,  32; 
Schreiber,  Atlas  of  Classical  Antiquities  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1895),  pi.  63 
(fish  mosaic,  with  identification  of  species  in  the  accompanying  text);  Marx, 
II  cosidetto  Akratos  nella  casa  del  Fauno,  Rom.  Mitth.,vol.  7  (1892),  pp.  26-31. 

CHAPTER   XXXVIl.      A    HOUSE    NEAR   THE    PORTA   MARINA      "-  js     ^ 

-  •'-cc,    /3 

■•      Decoration:  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  96,  ^Si.   2<^ ^ 

CHAPTER   XXXVIII.     THE    HOUSE  OF  THE   SILVER  WEDDING 

Excavation    (1892-1893),  plan,  decoration:    Mau,   Rom.    Mitth.,   vol.    8      - 
(1893),  pp.  14-61  ;  cf.  also  Not.  d.  scavi,  1892. 

Dated  inscription  [p.  305]  :  C.  I.  L.  I.  (Edit.  2),  p.  342;  cf.  also  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  8,  pp.  30-31. 

CHAPTER   XXXIX.      THE    HOUSE    OF   EPIDIUS    RUFUS 

Excavation  {i%66). plaji:  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872, 
pp.  62-63  ;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  297-300. 

Decoration,  paintings :  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  98-100  ;    .- 
Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  59  <^,  231,  863^,  %']ob,  874/^,  885  b.^  %(p.b,  ()6j  b. 


534  POMPEII 

CHAPTER   XL.      THE    HOUSE    OF    THE    TRAGIC    POET 

Excavatio7i  (i 824-1 825),  plan,  decor atio7i :    Fiorelli,   Pomp    ant.  hist., 

•  vol.  2,  pp.  116-135;  Cell,  Pompeiana  (Edit,  of  1832),  vol.  i,  pp.  142-178; 
»     NiccoLixi,  le  case   ed   i    monumenti  di  Pompei,  vol.    i  ;    Overbeck-Mau. 

Pompeji.  pp.  285-289. 

Faintings :  Helbig,  Wandgemalde.  see  p.  Exxxvi.  and  Topogr.  Index 
under  Casa  del  poeta.  p.  471  ;  also  Helbig.  Le  nozze  di  Giove  e  di  Giunone. 
Ann.  deir  Inst.,  vol.  36  (1864).  pp.  270-282. 

The  Iphigenia  of  Timanthcs  [p.  319]:  Cic.  Orator,  xxii.  74;  Plin.  N.  H. 

•  XXXV.  X.  73;  Quint.  Inst.  orat.  II.  xiii.  12.  13:  Valer.  Max.  VIII.  xi.  ext.  6, 
with  the  comment  of  Lessixg  in  the  Laokoon.  chap.  2.  and  the  references 
given  by  Blumxer.  Lessing"s  Laokoon  (Berlin.  1876),  pp.  36-37;  cf.  also 
Baumeister,  Denkmaler  des  klassischen  Altertums  (3  vols.,  Munich,  1884- 
1888).  vol.  I,  pp.  754-757,  and  Jex-Blake  and  Sellers,  The  Elder  Pliny's 
Chapters  on  the  History  of  Art  (London.  1896),  pp.  116-117.  note  2. 

CH.APTER   XLL      THE    HOUSE    OF   THE   VETTII 

Excavation  (i 894-1 895),  plan,  restoration,  decoration,  paintings:   Mau, 

•  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  11  (1896).  pp.  3-97:  Sogllaxo.  Mon.  del  Lincei.  vol.  8 
(1898),  pp.  233-416:  Herrlich.  Archaologischer  Anzeiger,  1896,  pp.  206- 
207;  Mau,  Amoren  als  Oelfabrikanten.  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  15  (1900),  pp.  138- 
141  :    Mau,  Amoren   als    Goldschmiede,  Rom,  Mitth.,  vol.    16   (1901),  pp. 

'    109-116. 

CHAPTER   XLII.      THREE    HOUSES    OF    UNUSUAL   PLAN 

House  of  Acceptjis  and  Eiihodia  (excavated  in  1882)  [p.  341]  :  Mau.  Bull. 
>2ji   VjV  deir  Inst.  1884,  pp.  126-132. 

House  uiithoui  a  coinpbiviiint  (excavated  between  1890  and  1895)  [p.  343]  : 
Mau.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  10  (1895).  pp.  148-155.  Fures  foras,  friigi  intra 
[p.  346]  ;  paraphrase  of  the  saying,  Petr.  Sat.  Lii.,  aquam  foras.  vinuin  intra. 
House  of  the  Emperor  foseph  //.  (excavated  in  1 767-1 769.  filled  up.  and 
''H  /'';^  again  excavated  in  1885-1886)  [p.  344]:  Fiorelll  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i. 
pt.  I,  pp.  208-211,  227-234;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei.  vol.  2.  pp.  73-74, 
pi.  32-34;  Mau.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  2  (1887),  pp.  1 10-138. 

CHAPTER   XLIII.      OTHER    NOTEWORTHY   HOUSES 

,  House  of  Caecilius  fucundus  (excavated  in  1875)  :  Mau,  Bull.  delP  Inst., 

1876.  pp.  149-15 1.  160-168.  223-234;  Mau.  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei, 
pp.  65,  414-415,  446,  450,  pi.  13,  14,  18;  Sogliano,  Le  pitture  murali  Cam- 
pane,  nos.  133,  138,  158.  176,  192,  207,  214,  233,  236.  251,  291,  413,  448.  449, 
477.  514.  531-  561.  579'  582,  583.  589.  594,  607.  640.  651,  659.  669.  670.  674. 
675.  676,  677,  693.  700.  708.  809.  815,  816. 

Hoiise  of  Lucretius  (excavated  in  1847)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2, 
pp.  453,  459-473 ;    MiNERViNl,  in    Niccolixi,  Le  case  ed   i   monumenti   di 


APPENDIX  535 

Pompei,  vol.  i;  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  14,  pi.  A,  B;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  . 
314-320;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde.  see  Topogr.  Index,  p.  482. 

House  of  the  Hunt  (excavated  in  1834):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  3,   • 
pp.  286-288;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  277-279;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde, 
see    Topogr.    Index,   p.   473,    under    Casa    della    caccia    antica;    Mau,  . 
Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  p.  454. 

House  of  the  Centenary  (excavated  in  1879-1880)  :  Mau,  Bull,  dell'  Inst., 
1881,  pp.  113-128,  169-175,  221-238;   1882,  pp.  23-32,  47-53,87-91,  104-116, 
137-148;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  353-359;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec, 
Wandmalerei,   pp.   287,   314,   321,   368,   382-385,   443-444,   449'   452,   455;' 
SoGLiANO,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane,  nos.  530,  585,  596,  628. 

House  of  the  Sculptured  Capitals  (excavated  in  1831-1833)  :  Avellino, 
Descrizione  di  una  casa  pompeiana  con  capitelli  figurati  all'  ingresso,  dissotter- 
rata  negli  anni  1831,  1832  e  1833  (Naples,  1837),  also  in  Mem.  delP  Ace. 
Ercolanese,  vol.  6  (1837)  ;  Niccolini,  le  case  ed  i  monumenti  di  Pompei, 
vol.  I  ;  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  225-227 ;  Marquardt,  Rom.  • 
Privatleben  (Edit.  2),  pp.  224  flf . ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,' 
pp.  94,  374-379,  388,  430-431  ;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  see  Topogr.  Index,' 

P-  473- 

House  of  Pans  a  (excavated  in  1813-1827)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  I,  pt.  3,  pp.  ii6-i6i,vol.  2,  pp.  195-197  ;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompdi, - 
vol.  2,  p.  82,  pi.  42-45;    Fiorelli,   Descrizione    di    Pompei,  pp.    102-106; 
Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  325-329;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  658-659;  ' 
Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  72-73  ;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  ' 
nos.  53,  115,  1014. 

House  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (also  known  as  house  of  the  Dioscuri,  and  casa 
del  Questore ;  excavated  in   1828-1829)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2, 
pp.  205-221  ;  Niccolini.  op.  cit..  vol.  i  ;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  334-  ■ 
342  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  5  (see  Relazione  degli  scavi  di  Pompei,  at  the  end  of  "' 
the  vol. ;  26  pp.  text,  with  plan  ;  cf.  also  pi.  32,  33)  ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  - 
Wandmalerei,  pp.  258. 372-373,  402.420-421.  446,455  ;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde, 
pp.  I.xxxv-Lxxxvi  and  Topogr.  Index,  p.  469. 

House  of  the  Centaur  (excavated  in  1828-1829)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant. 
hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  217-224;    Ove:rbeck-Mau,   Pompeji,  pp.  330-334;    Mau,' 
Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  75-78 ;    Helbig.  Wandgemalde,  see- 
Topogr.  Index,  p.  469,  under  Casa  del  Centauro.     For  the  large  mosaic 
found  in  this  house,  known  under  the  title  "  Force  conquered  by  Love."  see  Museo" 
Borb.,  vol.  7,  pi.  61  ;   Roux.  Herculanum  et  Pompei,  vol.   5,  series  6,  pi.  30. 

House  of  Meleager  (excavated  in  1829-1830)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  2,  pp.  224-240;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  307-314;  Nissen,  Pomp.» 
Studien,  pp.  426-427 ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  74,  373^- 
374,  446,  453 ;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  pp.  lxx.xvii-lxx.xviii  and  Topogr. 
Index,  p.  468. 

House  of  Apollo  (excavated  in   1829-1830)  :  Fiorelll  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  2,  pp.  235-236;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  427-428;  Mau,  Geschichte 


536  POMPEII 

der  dec  Wandmalerei,  p.  454;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  see  Topogr.  Index 
p.  467. 

Houses  with  mosaic  fountains  (excavated  in  1826-1827)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  pp.  174-202;  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  125-126;  Nicco- 
LiNi,  op.  cit.jvol.  I  ;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  p.  lxxxviii  and  Topogr.  Index, 
p.  47O'  X. 

House  of  the  Anchor  (excavated  in  1830):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  2.  pp.  237-239 :  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  142-143 :  Mau,  Geschichte 
der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  79-80,  258-259,  302,  396-397,  399,  422 ;  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  nos.  174,  334,  495.  564.  1220. 

House  of  the  Citharist  (excavation  Ijegun  in  1853.  completed  in  1868)  : 
Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  pp.  65-69;  Fiorelli,  De- 
scrizione di  Pompei.  pp.  61-65  ;  Overbeck-M.a.u,  Pompeji,  pp.  359-366  :  M.\u, 
Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei.  pp.  64,  251-252,315,316,318.326,335- 
336,  343,  367,  389,  397,  411 -413,  446.  Paintings:  Helbig.  Wandgemalde, 
see  Topogr.  Index,  pp.  482-483  ;  Orestes  and  Pylades,  Helbig,  Oreste  e 
Pilade  in  Tauride  su  dipinto  Pompeiano,  Ann.  delP  Inst.,  vol.  37  (1865),  pp. 
330-346,  and  Mon.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  8,  pi.  22.  Statue  of  Apollo  [p.  352]  : 
often  reproduced,  as  by  Overbeck,  Atlas  der  griechischen  Kunstmythologie, 
pi.  20,  no.  26;  Mon.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  8,  pi.  13:  Reinach,  Repertoire  de  la 
statuaire  grecque  et  romaine,  vol.  2  (Paris,  1897).  p.  97,  no.  8;  Brunx  and 
Bruckmann,  Denkmaler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculptur,  no.  302.  See 
Kekule,  Statua  Pompeiana  di  Apolline,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  yj  (1865),  pp.  55- 
71  :  Wolters,  Eine  Spartanische  Apollostatue.  Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  vol.  11  (1896), 
pp.  i-io:  FuRT\v.\ENGLER,  Meisterwerkc  der  griechischen  Plastik  (Leipzig, 
1893).  pp.  79,  80,  and  English  translation  by  Eugenie  Sellers,  Masterpieces  of 
Greek  Sculpture  (London,  1895),  p.  52;  Collignox,  Histoire  de  la  sculpture 
grecque,  vol.  2  (Paris,  1897),  pp.  665-666. 

House  of  Cornelius  Rufus  (excavated  in  1861)  :  Fiorelli,  Giornale  degli 
scavi,  vol.  I  (1861);  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  340-342:  Mau, 
Geschichte   der   dec.  Wandmalerei,   p.   97 ;    Overbeck-Mau,   Pompeji,   pp. 

537-538- 

House  of  Marcus  Holconius  (excavated  in  1861):  Bull.  Arch.  Italiano.  vol. 
I  (1861-1862).  pp.  18-143-  Fiorelli,  Giornale  degU  scavi,  vol.  i  (1861),  pp. 
13  et  seq.;  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  332-337:  Overbeck-Mau, 
Pompeji,  pp.  290-297. 

CHAPTER  XLIV.     ROMAN  VILLAS.     THE  VILLA  OF  DIOMEDES 

Of  Roman  villas  in  general:  Castell,  The  Villas  of  the  Ancients  Illus- 
trated (London,    1728);    Friedlaexder,    Sittengeschichte   Rom.s,  Edit.  5. 

vol.  2,  pp.  85-93,  170-193,  vol.  3,  pp.  89-100,  Edit.  7,  pp.  201-210;    SCH.MIDT, 

Cicero's  Villen,  neue  Jahrbiicher  fiir  das  klas.  Altertum,  vol.  3  (1899).  pp.  328- 
355.  466-497,  particularly  pp.  328-333  :  Wixnefeld,  Tusci  und  Laurentum  des 
jlingeren  Plinius,  Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  vol.  6  (1892),  pp.  201-217;  Wixxefeld, 


APPENDIX  537 

Die  Villa  des  Hadrian  bei  Tivoli  (Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  Erganzungsheft  III,  Berlin, 
1895)  ;  WiNNEFELD,  Romisclie  Villen  der  Kaiserzeit,  Preussische  Jahrbiicher, 
vol.  57  (i8g8),  pp.  457  ct  scq. 

Villas  ill  the  region  about  Baiae:  Beloch,  Campanien  (Edit.  2,  Berlin, 
1883),  pp.  201-202,  269-274. 

Villas  about  Rome:  Nibby,  Dintorni  di  Roma  (Edit.  2,  3  vols.,  Rome, 
1 848-1 849),  vol.  3,  pp.  31-41,  203,  647-737;  De  Rossi,  II  Tuscolo,  le  ville 
Tusculane  e  le  loro  antiche  memorie  cristiane.  Bull,  di  Archeologia  cristiana, 
1872,  especially  pp.  87-121  ;  Lanciani,  Le  ville  Tusculane  (with  map,  tav.  20- 
21),  Bull,  com.,  1884,  pp.  172-217;  Lanciani,  La  villa  Castrimeniese  di  Q. 
Voconio  Pollione,  ibid.,  pp.  141-171  ;  Grossi-Gondi,  Di  una  villa  del  Ouin- 
tilii  nel  Tusculano,  Bull,  com.,  1898.  pp.  313-338;  Lanciani,  The  Destruction 
of  Ancient  Rome  (New  York.  1899).  pp.  101-105  ;  Grossi-Gondi,  La  villa  dei 
Ouintilii  e  la  villa  di  Mondragone  (Rome.  1901). 

Villa  of  the  Laberii  at  Uthina  (south  of  Tunis):  Gauckler.  Le  domaine 
des  Laberii  a  Uthina,  Monuments  et  Memoires  publiees  par  I'Academie  des 
Inscriptions  et  Belles-lettres,  vol.  3  (Fondation  Plot,  Paris,  1897),  pp.  177-229; 
Schulten,  review  of  Gaucklers  monograph,  Gottingsche  gelehrte  Anzeigen, 
1898.  pp.  475-481,  and  briefer  report  (with  plan)  in  Archaologischer  Anzeiger, 
Beiblatt  zum  Jahrb.  des  Inst..  1898,  pp.  113-115. 

Villas  ill  Britain:  References  to  Chap.  XXXIII,  and  Morgan,  Roman 
British  Mosaic  Pavements  (London,  1886). 

The  Villa  of  Diomedes  (excavated  in  1771-1774):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant. 
hist.,  vol.  I,  pt.  I,  pp.  249-278  ;  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  p.  89,  pi.  47-53  ; 
IvANOFF,  Architektonische  Studien,  Heft.  2  (mit  Elaeuterungen  von  August 
Mau.  Berlin,  1895),  pi.  4-6;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji.  pp.  369-376;  Mau, 
Pomp.  Beitrage,  p.  151  ;   Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  see  Topogr.  Index,  p.  483. 

Bedroom  in  Pliiifs  villa  [p.  358]:  Plin.  Ep.  II.  xvii.  23. 

CHAPTER   XLV.      THE   VILLA   RUSTICA   AT   BOSCOREALE 

Excavation,  plan,  remains :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  g  (1894),  pp.  349-358, 
vol.  1 1  (1896),  pp.  131-140  ;  PasQUI,  La  villa  pompeiana  della  Pisanella  presso 
Boscoreale,  Mon.  dei  Lincei,  vol.  7  (1897),  pp.  397-554.  For  the  collection 
of  silverware,  see  references  on  p.  538.  Part  of  the  objects  of  bronze  found 
in  the  villa  are  in  Berlin ;  see  Pernice,  Bronzen  aus  Boscoreale,  Archaologi- 
scher Anzeiger,  Beiblatt  zum  Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  vol.  15  (1900),  pp.  177-181. 
Others  are  in  the  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago  ;  see  Tarbell,  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Archaeology,  vol.  3  (1899),  Second  Series,  p.  584. 

Sleeping  room  of  the  overseer  near  the  entrance  [p.  363]  :  Varro,  R.R.  I, 
xiii,  2. 

Small  open  cistern  [p.  366]  :  As  the  establishment  was  not  connected  with 
an  aqueduct,  rain  water  was  carefully  saved. 

The  7iilla  as  a  country  residence  [p.  366]  :  In  the  farmhouses  about  Rome 
and  Naples  to-day  rooms  over  the  quarters  of  the  tenant  are  reserved  for  the 
use  of  the  owner. 


538  POMPEII 


CHAPTER   XLVI.      HOUSEHOLD   FURNITURE 

Nearly  all  the  articles  of  furniture  and  of  the  toilet  referred  to  in  this  chapter 
are  figured  and  described,  with  many  others,  in  the  Real  Museo  Borbonico. 
For  detailed  reference,  see  the  Index,  near  the  end  of  vol.  i6  (pp.  96-97,  Ori ; 
pp.  97-98,  Argenti ;  pp.  99-112,  Suppellettile),  and  our  List  of  Illustrations, 
pp.  xxi-xxiii.  Most  of  them  are  reproduced  by  Roux,  Herculanum  et  Pompei, 
vol.  7 ;  a  number  are  figured  by  Piranesi  in  the  volume,  Oggetti  di  uso  civile, 
militare  e  religioso,  trovati  a  Pompeia  e  ad  Ercolano  (=  vol.  27  of  his  Opera). 
See  also  the  references  on  the  Pompeian  and  the  Roman  house  [pp.  53 1-532] ,  and 
Becker,  Gallus  (eighth  English  edition.  London,  1886),  pp.  285-301  ;  Guhl 
and  KoNER,  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  §§  86-93,  97  :  Friedlaender, 
Sittengeschichte  Roms,  Edit.  5,  vol.  3.  pp.  loo-i  12.  Edit.  7,  vol.  2,  pp.  210-220 ; 
Marquardt,  Rom.  Privatleben  (Edit.  2),  pp.  607-768.  Cf.  Mau,  Fornelli 
antichi.  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1898),  pp.  38-46. 

Silver  cups  found  in  tJie  Casa  dclV  Argeiiteria  [p.  379]  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  305. 

The  treasure  of  Boscoreale  [p.  380]  :  Herox  de  Villefosse.  Le  tresor  de 
Boscofeale,  Monuments  et  Memoires  publics  par  PAcaddmie  des  Inscriptions 
et  Belles-lettres,  vol.  5  (Fondation  Plot.  Paris,  1899),  fasc.  i  and  2;  also 
Michaelis,  Der  Silberschatz  von  Boscoreale.  Preussische  Jahrblicher,  vol. 
85  (1896),  pp.  19-56;  Winter,  Der  Silberschatz  von  Boscoreale,  Archaolo- 
gischer  Anzeiger,  Beiblatt  zum  Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  vol.  11  (1896),  pp.  74-87; 
cf.  also  CoLLiGXON.  Histoire  de  la  sculpture  grecque,  vol.  2,  pp.  681-682. 

Shallow  bowl  with  a  representation  of  Alexandria  [p.  380]  :  Two  similar 
bowls  were  ornamented  with  realistic  portrait  heads  of  a  man  and  a  woman, 
which,  to  judge  from  the  manner  of  dressing  the  hair,  probably  date  from  the 
reign  of  Claudius  or  Nero.  The  bowl  containing  the  portrait  of  the  woman 
had  been  lost,  and  the  detached  head  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
other,  with  the  rest  of  the  collection  (102  pieces)  is  in  the  Louvre. 

Beside  Epicurus  an  eager  pig  [p.  381]  :  cf.  Hor.  Ep.  I.  iv.  16.  Epicuri  de 
grege  porcus. 

Greek  inscription  [p.  382]  :   Heron  de  Villefosse,  op.  cit.,  p.  59. 

ZQN      MGTA  (wv  iJ-erd- 

AABGTOrAP  AaySe,  TO  yap 

AYPIONAAH  avpiovS.^- 

AONeCTI  \6v  Ian 


CHAPTER  XLVII.      THE   TRADES  AT   POMPEII.      THE   BAKERS 

Of  the  trades  in  general :  Blumner,  Technologie  und  Terminologie  der 
Gewerbe  und  Kunste  bei  Griechen  und  Romern  (4  vols.;  Leipzig,  1875- 
1887)  ;  Marquardt,  Rom.  Privatleben,  pt.  2  (Edit.  2;  Leipzig,  1886). 


APPENDIX  539 

Inscriptions  relating  to  the  trades  at  Pompeii :  C.  I.  L.  IV.,  see  Index, 
p.  256,  under  artes  et  officia  privata. 

Signs  of  shops  [p.  387]  :  JORDAN,  Ueber  rdmische  Ausbaiugeschilder. 
Archaiologische  Zeitung,  vol.  4  (1871),  pp.  75  et  seq.  Inscription  of  Diogenes : 
C.  I.  L.  X.  868  ;  see  the  article,  Aushangeschilder,  by  Mau,  in  Pauly-Wissowa, 
Realencyclopadie,  vol.  2.  pp.  2558-2559. 

Cupids  as  carpenters  and  shoemakers  [p.  385]  :  Helbig,  Wandgemgilde, 
nos.  804,  805  ;  the  two  paintings  are  often  reproduced,  as  by  Schreiber, 
Atlas  of  Classical  Antiquities,  English  translation  by  Anderson  (London, 
1895).  pi.  72,  I,  and  73.  12.  Stiiccoer  (tector)  :  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1879, 
p.  134;  SoGLiANO,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane,  no.  655;  Blumner,  Ann. 
deir  Inst.,  vol.  53  (1881),  pp.  107-108.  pi.  H. 

Bakers  and  bakeshops  [p.  388]  :  Blumner,  op.  cit.,  vol.  i,  pp.  1-88  ;  Mar- 
QUARDT,  op.  cit.,  pp.  414-424;  FuLVio,  Delle  fornaci  e  dei  forni  pompeiani. 
Pompei  e  la  regione  sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio  nell'  anno  lxxix.  pp.  273-291  ; 
DE  Rossi.  Antichi  mulini  in  Roma  e  nel  Lazio,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  29  (1857), 
pp.  274-281  ;  Mau,  Su  certi  apparecchi  nei  pistrini  di  Pompei,  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  I  (18S6),  pp.  45-48.  and  pi.  3.  Processes  of  bread-making:  best  illus- 

trated in  the  reliefs  of  the  monument  of  Eurysaces,  Rome,  shown  in  Mon.  dell' 
Inst.,  vol.  2,  pi.  58:  cf.  C.  I.  L.  I.  1013-1015  ;  Jahn,  Sepolcro  di  Eurisace, 
Ann.  deir  Inst.,  vol.  10  (1838),  particularly  pp.  231-248.  Loai'es  of  bread 
represented  in  paintings :  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  1501.  1661  if.  ;  see, 
e.g.,  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  6,  pi.  38,  vol.  8,  pi.  57.  Remains  of  loaves  found  at 
Pompeii:  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  p.  172. 

CHAPTER   XLVIII.      THE    FULLERS    AND    THE   TANNERS 

Appliances  and  processes :  Blumner,  op.  cit.,  vol.  i,pp.  155-178,  257-287. 
A  fuller  description  of  the  tannery,  with  illustrations  showing  the  implements 
discovered,  is  given  by  Mau,  Bull,  dell"  Inst..  1874.  pp.  271-275.  1875, 
pp.  18-25. 

No  soap  in  Pompeii  [p.  393]  :  Hofmann,  Ueber  vermeintliche  antike  Seife, 
Wiener  Studien,  vol.  4  (1882),  pp.  263-270. 

Pictures  illustrating  the  fuller y  [pp.  394-395]  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  4.  pi.  49, 
50;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  no.  1502:  Jahn,  Abhandlungen  der  konigl. 
sachsischen  Gesellschaft  des  Wissenschaften,  philologisch-hist.  Classe,  vol.  5 
(1870),  pp.  305-311,  and  pi.  4. 

CHAPTER   XLIX.      INNS    AND   WINESHOPS 

Roman  inns:  Friedlaender,  Sittengeschichte  Roms,  Edit.  5,  vol.  2, 
PP-  33-39'  Edit.  7,  vol.  i,  pp.  311-325- 

Inscriptions :  caupones,  copones,  C.  I.  L.  IV.,  see  Index,  p.  256;  of  Sittius, 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  806,  807  (for  the  picture,  see  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  no.  1601)  : 
of  the  inn,  Ins.  VIL  xii,  C-  \-  L.  IV.  2144-2164. 


540  POMPEII 

Pictures  illustrating  the  life  of  the  wineshop  [p.  403]  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp, 
ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  204;  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  4,  pi.  A,  vol.  5,  pi.  48  ;  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  nos.  1487,  1504. 

Selling  of  ivine  mixed  with  water  [p.  404]  :  a  stock  charge  against  ancient 
innkeepers ;  Trimalchio  (Petr.  Sat.  xxxix)  makes  out  that  these  were  born 
under  the  sign  Aquarius,  'the  waterer.'  For  the  wineshop  in  which  the 
graffito  was  found,  see  Mau,  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1874,  pp.  252-256. 

CHAPTER    L.      THE    STREET    OF    TOMBS  ^ 

Of  Roman  tombs  and  rites  of  burial:  Marquardt,  Rom.  Privatleben 
(Edit.  2),  pp.  340-385  ;  Freidlaender,  Sittengeschichte  Roms,  Edit.  5, 
vol.  3,  pp.  112-123,  Edit.  7,  vol.  2,  pp.  220-228  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  Lifeof  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  ^%77^  78,  no;  Lan'Ciaxi,  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome 
(1892).  pp.  168-208,  253-305;  VoLL.MER.  De  funere  publico  Romanorum, 
Jahrblicher  fiir  classische  Philologie.  Supplementband  19  (1893),  pp.  319-364: 
see  the  article  Bestattung.  by  Mau.  in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopadie,  vol.  3, 

pp.  346-359- 

Of  the  street  of  tombs  as  a  whole :  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei,  vol.  i  ; 
Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei.  pp.  401-419;  Nissen,  Pomp.  Studien. 
pp.  381-397;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  398-422. 

Tombs  near  the  Herculaneiiui  gate,  not  including  the  Garland  tomb  (ex- 
cavated 1763-1764,  1769-1770):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i, 
pp.  150-155,  234-241,  pt.  2,  pp.  110-118  (journal  of  Francesco  la  Vega); 
PiRANESi,  Antiquites  de  Pompei,  vols,  i,  2,  pi.  2-5,  34-44.  Sepulchral 
enclosure  of  Terentius  /•>//.i- .  (excavation  finished  December  15,  1828): 
Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  217;  Bonucci,  Pompei  decrite  (seconde 
traduction  de  la  3*^  edition  italienne,  Naples,  1830).  p.  72>-  ^^''^  ic"^^  nearest 
the  gate  on  the  right:  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  3  (18S8),  pp.  140-142. 

Tombs  farther  from  the  gate,  to  the  limit  of  excavation  (excavated  1806- 
1813):  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  pp.  87,  176-177.  (Garland 
tomb),  pt.  3,  pp.  74-120,  223-225,  249;  MiLLix.  Description  des  tombeaux 
qui  ont  ete  decouverts  a  Pompei  dans  Tannee  181 2  (Naples,  1813)-;  Clarac, 
Fouille  faite  k  Pompei  en  presence  de  S.  M.  la  Reine  des  Deux  Siciles  le  18 
Mars.  1813  (Naples,  1813).  Tomb  of  the  blue  glass  vase  {\Zy]^  :  Fiorelli, 
Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  3,  p.  132  ;  Schulz,  in  his  Scavi  di  Pompei,  Ann.  dell' 
Inst.,  vol.  10  (1838),  pp.  194-195.  0  Tomb  of  Diomedes  (excavated  in  i^^):  >'^^*1 
Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i.  pp.  279-280.  Tomb  of  Istacidius 
Helenus  (1775,  1828)  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist ,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  279-280, 
vol.  2,  p.  217.  The  pre-Roman  graves  [p.  407]  :  Mau  and  von  Duhx,  Bull, 
deir  Inst.,  1874,  pp.  156-167  :  earlier  finds  of  piinted  vases,  BoNUCCi,  Pompei 
(1830),  p.  65  ;  and  de  Iorio,  Plan  de  Pompei  et  remarques  sur  ses  Edifices 
(Naples,  1828),  p.  33. 

T.  Suedius  Clemens  [pp.  407-408  :  cf.  also  p.  488]  :  Clemens  was  now 
evidently  a  supporter  of  Vespasian ;  previously  he  had  been  in  the  service  of 
Othn  (Tac.  Hist.  I.  Lxxwn.  II.  xii). 


APPENDIX 


541 


Elite  glass  I'ase  [p.  415]  :  Schultz,  Anforina  di  vetro  con  bassirilievi 
rinvenuta  in  Pompei,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  11  (1839),  pp.  84-100. 

Gladiatorial  scenes  on  the  tomb  of  Scaio  us  [p.  419]  :  admirably  engraved 
by  Mazois  (op.  cit.,  pi.  30,  31,  32).  and  frequently  reproduced,  as  by 
ScHREiBER,  Atlas  of  Classical  Antiquities  (Eng.  trans.,  1895),  pi.  30,  2-9, 
text,  with  citation  of  literature,  p.  59;  Niccolini,  le  case  ed  i  monumenti  di 
Pompei,  vol.  i.  Inscriptions  accompanying  the  figures:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1182; 
the  inscription  of  the  tomb  itself  is  given,  C.  I.  L.  X.  1024.  In  his  in- 
terpretation of  the  reliefs  Mazois  incorrectly  assumed  (op.  cit.,  pp.  47-48) 
that  on  account  of  the  baiting  of  a  bear  by  one  of  the  figures  with  a  cloth  the 
tomb  could  not  have  been  built  before  the  time  of  Claudius.  The  passage 
cited  by  him  (Plin.  N.  H.  V'lII.  xvr.  54)  has  no  bearing  on  the  date;  but 
the  tomb  of  Scaurus,  which  belongs  neither  to  the  oldest  nor  to  the  most 
recent,  may  well  have  been  built  in  the  time  of  Claudius  or  of  Nero. 

Ship  on  the  tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche  [p.  423] :  Jordan,  Ann.  dell' 
Inst.,  vol.  44(1872),  pp.  20-26;  ViscoxTi,  Fronte  di  Sarcofago  con  Tritoni 
e  navi.  Bull.  Com.,  vol.  i  (1872-1873),  pp.  255-269;  cf.  Cic.  De  Sen.  xix.  71. 
Petronius  (Sat.  lxxi.)  humorously  represents  Trimalchio  as  ordering  'ships 
under  full  sail '  among  the  carvings  of  his  tomb. 

-^  Inscription  of  Sak'ius  [p.  426]  :  found,  according  to  C.  I.  L.  X.  1032.  be- 
side the  tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche :  but  we  have  the  testimony  of  Boxucci 
(Pompei,  1830,  p.  yi)  to  the  effect  that  it  was  found  in  the  niche  where  it  now 
is,  where  it  exactly  fits  the  cavity.  The  mistake  in  the  Corpus  may  have 
arisen  from  a  misunderstanding  of  the  report  of  the  excavation,  which  is  now 
unfortunately  lost. 
■0  M.  Alleius  Luccius  Libella  [p.  426]  :  the  name  was  originally  Luccius 
Libella,  with  what  praenomen  is  not  clear  ;  but  Luccius  Libella  married  the 
daughter  of  M.  Alleius  (M.  Alleius  Nigidius  Maius?)  and  was  adopted  by  him, 
assuming  his  praenomen  and  nomen,  so  that  the  full  name  took  the  form  given 
in  the  inscription.  The  son  dropped  the  original  noriien  Luccius,  and  was 
called  simply  M.  Alleius  Libella.  In  like  manner  the  name  of  the  son  of 
D.  Lucretius  Satrius  Valens  became  D.  Lucretius  V'alens  [p.  222]. 

CHAPTER  LI.   BURIAL  PLACES  NEAR  THE  NOLA,  STABIAN, 
AND  NOCERA  GATES 

Burial  places  near  the  iVola  Gate  [p.  429]  :  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  ant.  hist., 
vol.  2,  pp.  594-597;  NissEN,  Pomp.  Studien,  pp.  480-483. 

Graves  east  of  the  Stabian  Road  [p.  429] — earlier  finds :  Fiorelli, 
Pomp.  ant.  hist.,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  11-12,  14,  42' 46-48.  50.  51-52;  C.  I.  L.  X. 
1047-1062:  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1895).  p.  226,  7.  Later  finds :  Not.  d. 
scavi,  i8q^,  pp.  333-33?-  1894.  pp.  15-16.  382-385.  1897.  pp.  275-276;  Mau, 
Scavi  fliori  porta  Stabiana.  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  9  (i894_).  pp.  62-65.  ^'o^-   '° 

(1895)-  PP-  156-159- 

Tombs  near  the  Stabian  Gate  [p.  430]  :   Not.  d.  scavi.  1889.  pp.  280-281. 


542  POMPEII 

368-369,  406-410,  iSqo,  pp.  44-45,  165  ;  Mau,  Scavi  fuori  porta  Stabiana. 
Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  5  (1890),  pp.  277-284.  The  Inscriptions  are  given  also  in 
Ephem.  Epigr.,  vol.  8,  pp.  87-88  (nos.  318,  325.  327.  330). 

Totnbs  near  the  Amphitheatre  [p.  431]  :  Not.  d.  scavi,  1 886,  pp.  334-337, 
1887,  pp.  33-40,  452-458;  Mau,  Sepolcri  della  via  Nucerina,  Rom.  Mitth., 
vol.  3  (1888),  pp.  120-149.  -^or  the  inscriptions,  see  also  Ephem.  Epigr., 
vol.  8,  pp.  88-90  (320,  321,  324,  326,  328,  329,  332)  ;  advertisement  of  the 
stray  horse,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  3,  p.  145. 

Desecration  of  tombs  near  Rome  [p.  436]  :  Lanciani,  The  Destruction  of 
Ancient  Rome,  pp.  89-98. 

CHAPTER    LII.      ARCHITECTURE 

\fj   ]!  ,|  /^  Doric  frieze  with  red  metopes  [p.  441]  :  there  is  a  similar  frieze  in  the 
'  house  W\.  III.  31  ;  see  Mau,  Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  p.  97. 

CHAPTER    LIII.      SCULPTURE 

Of  the  sculptures  found  at  Pompeii:  Very  few  of  the  sculptures  unearthed 
at  Pompeii  are  treated  or  reproduced  in  the  comprehensive  works  on  ancient 
sculpture.  The  more  important  statues  and  reliefs  found  prior  to  1865,  as  well 
as  those  discovered  in  Herculaneum,  are  published  in  the  Real  Museo  Bor- 
bonico,  with  descriptive  text;  see  the  Index  at  the  end  of  vol.  16.  pp.  8-34. 
They  are  reproduced  also  by  Roux,  with  descriptive  text  by  Barre,  Hercula- 
num  et  Pompei,  vols.  6  and  7  (first  part).  These  engravings,  while  in  many 
cases  faulty,  are  often  serviceable  to  students  at  a  distance  in  the  identification 
of  photographs,  which  are  easily  obtained  through  the  Naples  dealers.  The 
better  terra-cottas  are  published  by  Vox  Rohden,  Die  Terracotten  von  Pom- 
peji  (Stuttgart,  1880).  A  somewhat  fuller  treatment  of  Ponipeian  sculpture  is 
given  in  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  532-563. 

Heads  of  Epicurus,  Demosthenes,  and  Callimachus  [p.  447]  :  Mau,  Bull, 
deir  Inst..  1876,  pp.  242-243  :  Brizio,  Ann.  dell"  Inst.,  vol.  45  (1873).  PP-  9^- 
106;  Mommsex  and  Robert,  Archaologische  Zeitung,  1880,  pp.  32-36; 
Comparetti,  La  Villa  Ercolanese  dei  Pisoni  (Torino,  1883),  pp.  33-53,  pi-  HI, 
nos.  4,  7,  8 ;  Mau,  Bull.  delP  Inst.,  1883,  pp.  89-96 ;  for  other  references,  see 
Helbig,  Fiihrer  durch  die  ofFentlichen  Sammlungen  klassischer  Altertlimer  in 
Rom  (Edit.  2,  2  vols.,  Leipzig.  1899),  vol.  i.  p.  319.  no.  476. 

Busts  of  Virgil  and  Horace  [p.  448]  (found  in  October,  1868)  :  Giornale 
degli  scavi  di  Pompei.  Nuova  Serie,  vol.  i  (1868).  p.  133  and  pi.  i  :  Fiorelli, 
Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  p.  164;  Bernoulli,  Romische  Ikono 
graphic,  vol.  i  (Stuttgart,  1882),  pp.  127,  192:  Helbig,  Fiihrer  durch  die 
offentlichen  Sammlungen  klassischer  Altertlimer  in  Rom  (Edit.  2),  vol.  i, 
pp.  355-356.  A  further  reason  why  Brutus  cannot  be  represented  in  the 
Naples  bust  is  that  the  similar  bust  in  the  Capitoline  Museum  in  Rome 
(Helbig,  op.  cit..  no.  536)  shows  a  person  well  on  in  years,  while  the  promi- 
nence of  Brutus  lasted  only  for  a  brief  period,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  there 


APPENDIX  543 

should  be  preserved  to  us  portraits  representing  him  at  periods  so  entirely 
different.  Susa  mosaic:  Comptes  rendus  de  I'Academie  des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles-lettres,  serie  4,  vol.  24  (Paris.  1896),  pp.  578-581  and  pl.  after  p.  580; 
Gauckler,  Les  Mosaiques  virgiliennes  de  Sousse,  Monuments  et  M(^moires 
publi^es  par  PAcademie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belleslettres,  vol.  4  (Fondation 
Piot,  1897),  pp.  233-234;  Fowler,  Portraits  of  Virgil,  School  Review,  vol.6 
(1898),  pp.  598-605;  Archaologischer  Anzeiger,  Beiblatt  zum  Jahrb  des  Inst., 
vol.  13  (1898),  p.  114. 

Aphrodite  and  Spes  [p.  450]:  Mau,  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1873,  PP-  233-235. 

Artemis  [p.  450J:  often  reproduced,  as  Museo.  Borb.,  vol.  2,  pl.  8;  Roux, 
Herculanum  et  Pompei,  vol.  6,  pl.  76,  ']'] ;  Brunn  and  Bruckmann,  Denk- 
maler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculptur,  no.  356.  Identification  ivitJi 

Artemis Laphria  (Paus.  VII.  xviii.  9)  :  Studniczka,  Die  archaische  Artemis- 
statuette  aus  Pompeii,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  3  (1888),  pp.  277-302,  and  pl.  10; 
COLLiGNON,  Histoire  de  la  sculpture  grecque,  vol.  2  (Paris,  1897),  pp.  656-657. 

Dancing  satyr  [p.  450]  :  Museo  Borb..  vol.  9,  pl.  42  ;  Roux,  Herculanum 
et  Pompdi,  vol.  6,  pl.  59;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  549-551. 

Silenus  carrying  frame  with  glass  vase  [p.  451]  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  16, 
pl.  29;  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872,  p.  159;  Overbeck- 
Mau,  Pompeji,  p.  552. 

Listening  Dionysus  [p.  452]  :  Giornale  degli  scavi  di  Pompei,  1862,  p.  60 
and  pl.  14;  Fiorelli,  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  i86r  al  1872,  pp.  158-159; 
Benxdorf,  Sulla  statua  Pompeiana  creduta  di  Narcisso,  Ann.  delP  Inst., 
vol.38  (1866),  pp.  107-113;  Overbeck-Mau,  Pompeji,  pp.  552-555  ;  Hauser, 
Narcisso,  Jahrb.  des  Inst.,  vol.  4  (1889),  pp.  113-118  ;  Collignon,  Histoire  de 
la  sculpture  grecque,  vol.  2,  pp.  451-453  ;  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  16,  pl.  28  ;  Brunn 
and  Bruckmann,  Denkmailer,  no.  384.  Hauser  in  the  article  cited  makes  it 
appear  probable  that  the  figure  had  originally  a  somewhat  diiTerent  pose;  the 
right  foot  rested  flat  upon  the  base,  the  left  only  on  the  heel,  so  that  the  body, 
instead  of  leaning  forward,  was  slightly  bent  back.  The  present  pose,  how- 
ever, was  given  to  the  figure  in  antiquity;  according  to  G.  Patroni,  the  wedge 
of  lead  under  the  right  foot  was  in  its  present  place  when  the  statuette  was 
discovered. 

Ephebus  of  igoo  [p.  453]  :  Not.  d.  scavi,  1900,  pp.  584-587  (7  illustra- 
tions) ;  Sogliano,  L'efebo  in  bronzo  rinvenuto  in  Pompei,  Mon.  dei  Lincei, 
vol.  10  (1901),  pp.  641-654,  pl.  16-26.  This  statue  is  assigned  to  the  Roman 
period  by  Waldstein,  The  Monthly  Review,  1901,  pp.  125-126,  and  Peter- 
sen, Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  16  (1901),  p.  96. 

CHAPTER   LIV.      PAINTING.     WALL   DECORATION 

Techniqiie  of  Pompeian  painting:  Donner,  Die  erhaltenen  antiken  Wand- 
malereien  in  technischer  Beziehung,  printed  as  an  introduction  to  Helbig's 
Wandgemalde  (see  Chap.  LV.),  pp.  i  —  cxxvii ;  Mau,  Geschichte  der  deco- 
rativen  Wandmalerei  in  Pompeji  (Berlin,  1882;  with  atlas  of  20  plates). 


544  POMPEII 

Specimen  ilhistrations :  Man\'  entire  walls  as  well  as  single  paintings  are 
reproduced  in  color  in  the  extensive  works  by  Zahn,  Die  schonsten  Orna- 
niente  und  merkwurdgsten  Gemalde  aus  Pompeji.  Herkulanum  und  Stabiae, 
nebst  einigen  Grundrissen  und  Ansichten  (Mit  deutschem  und  franzbsischem 
Text.  Drei  Abtheilungen  in  30  Heften,  302  Tafeln.  Berlin,  1827-1859)  ; 
and  NiccoLiNi,  Le  case  ed  i  monumenti  di  Ponipei  designati  e  descritti 
(Naples,  1 854- 1 901).  Both  works  are  rarely  found  complete,  and  the  plates 
of  the  second  in  particular  leave  much  to  be  desired  in  respect  to  draw- 
ing as  well  as  coloring;  it  has  therefore  been  thought  best  not  to  encum- 
ber these  notes  with  detailed  references  to  them.  A  number  of  walls  are  shown 
also  by  Roux.  Herculanum  et  Pompei  (8  vols..  Paris,  1840),  vol.  i  (108  plates), 
and  by  D'Amelio,  Dipinti  iMurali  di  Pompei,  Naples,  1888.  Professor  Mau 
has  in  preparation  a  new  work  on  wall  decoration  which  will  be  illustrated  by 
colored  plates  similar  to  those  in  the  atlas  to  his  Wandmalerei.  The  sources 
of  the  illustrations  in  this  and  the  following  chapter  are  given  in  our  List  of 
Illustrations,  p.  xxv. 

Preparation  of  the  wall  [p.  456J  :  Vitr.  VII.  ill ;  cf.  also  MiDDLETON, 
The  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome  (2  vols.  London,  1892),  vol.  i,  pp.  91-103. 

Decoration  of  the  honse  of  Lucretius  [p.  457]  :  see  references  on  p.  528. 

The  four  styles  of  decoration  [p.  457]  :  suggestive  critical  comments  by 
WiCKHOFF.  Roman  Art  (English  trans,  by  Mrs.  S.  Arthur  Strong,  London, 
1900),  pp.  1 17  tf. ;  but  see  the  review  of  the  German  original  by  Mau,  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  10  (1895),  pp.  227-235. 

Decoration  of  the  second  style  in  Rome  [p.  462]  — house  of  Germanicus  on 
the  Palatine:  Mau,  Due  pareti  d'una  stanza  sul  Palatine,  Ann.  delF  Inst.,  vol. 
52  (1880),  pp.  136-149,  and  Mon.  deir  Inst.,  vol.  11.  pi.  22-23;  Mau, 
Geschichte  der  dec.  Wandmalerei,  pp.  196-205  and  pi.  9.  House  in  the 
Far nesina garden:  Not.  d.  Scavi,  1879,  pp.  15,  40,  68,  114,  141.  179-180.267, 
314,  333,  1880,  pp.  32,  127-128,  138-140,  and  pi.  4  (plan)  ;  Mau.  Parete 
dipinta  della  casa  antica  scoperta  nel  giardino  della  Farnesina,  Ann.  dell'  Inst., 
vol.  54  (1882),  pp.  301-308;  HuLSEx\,  Fregio  dipinta  nella  casa  antica 
scoperta  nel  giardino  della  Farnesina,  ibid.,  pp.  309-314;  Mau,  Pitture  della 
casa  antica  scoperta  nella  villa  Farnesina,  Ann.  delP  Inst.,  vol.  56  (1884), 
pp.  307-322.  vol.  57  (1885),  pp.  302-318;  Mon.  deir  Inst.,  vol.  11,  pi.  44- 
48,  vol.  12,  pi.  5,  5^,  7,  7^,  8,  17-34;  Supplemento  (1891),  pi.  32-36;  espe- 
cially Lessing  and  Mau,  Wand-  und  Deckenschmuck  eines  romischen 
Hauses  aus  der  Zeit  des  Augustus  (Berlin,  1891  ;  with  16  plates  from  the 
same  blocks  as  those  in  the  Mon.  deir  Inst.)  ;  Helbig,  Fiihrer  durch  die 
Sammlungen  klassischer  Altertlimer  in  Rom,  vol.  2,  pp.  226-223,  nos.  1107- 
1108,  1119-1122,  1124,  1129-1136,  1141-1144,  1146-1148,  1151. 

CHAPTER    LV.      THE    PAINtlNGS 

Of  the  paintings  in  general:  the  paintings  discovered  prior  to  1868  are 
described,  with  references  to  the  literature,  by  W.  Helbig.  Wandgemailde  der 


APPENDIX  545 

vom  Vesuv  verscliutteten  Staidte  Campaniens  (Nebst  einer  Abhandlung  liber 
die  antiken  Wandmalereieii  in  Tecliuischer  Bezieliung,  von  Otto  Donner, 
Leipzig,  1868)  :  those  discovered  after  the  publication  of  Helbig's  work  and 
before  1880,  by  A.  Sogliano,  Le  pitture  murali  Campane  scoverte  negh  anni 
1 867- 1 879  (supplemento  all'  opera  dell'  Helbig,  Naples,  1879.  Published  also 
in  the  volume,  Poinpei  e  la  regione  sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio,  for  which  see 
p.  513)  ;  those  that  have  come  to  light  since  1879  '^•'^  described  by  Mau  in 
his  reports  (see  note  to  Chap.  IV)  and  in  the  Notizie  degli  scavi ;  cf.  also 
Helbig,  Untersuchungen  liber  die  campanische  Wandmalerei  (Leipzig,  1873). 
Besides  the  reproductions  of  paintings  by  Zahn  and  NICCOLINI  mentioned 
above  (p.  544).  the  more  important  examples  are  published  in  the  Real  Aluseo 
Borbonico  (see  Index  at  the  end  of  vol.  16,  pp.  37-58)  :  Roux,  Herculanum 
et  Pompei,  vols.  1-5  (Paris,  1840)  ;  Rochette,  Choix  de  peintures  de  Pom- 
pii,  la  plupart  de  sujet  historique  (lithographiees  en  coiileur  par  M.  Roux,  et 
publiees  .  .  .  par  M.  Raoul-Rochette  ;  7  livraisons  in  fob,  Paris,  1844-1853, 
incomplete);  Presuhn,  Pompeji,  Die  neuesten  Ausgrabungen  von  1874  bis 
1881  (Edit.  2,  Leipzig,  1882  ;  80  chromolithograph  plates);  and  in  other  works 
the  titles  of  which  are  easily  accessible  in  Furchheim"s  Bibliografia.  The 
colored  plates  presented  by  A.  Niccolini,  Arte  Pompeiana  Monumenti  scelti 
(a  selection  of  55  plates  from  the  larger  work,  Naples,  1888),  give  a  false  idea 
of  the  paintings  reproduced. 

No  ei'idetice  of  development  in  composition  or  technique  [p.  471]  :  cf.  Wick 
HOFF,  Roman  Art.  pp.  139  ff. 

Hercules  and  Antaeus  [p.  472]  :  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1876,  p.  loi  ;  Sogliano, 
Le  pitture  murali  Campane,  no.  495. 

Mosaic  pictures  on  t/ie  floor  [p.  472]  :  as  in  the  house  of  the  Faun  ;  see 
references  on  p.  533.  For  the  Pompeian  mosaics  in  general,  see  Gh  ornati 
delle  pareti  ed  i  pavimenti  delle  stanze  dell'  antica  Pompei,  3  vols.  Naples, 
1796-1808,  vols.  I  and  2;  Museo  Borb.,  Index  at  the  end  of  vol.  16,  pp.  35- 
37;  Rou.x,  Herculanum  et  Pompei,  vol.  5  (latter  part,  32  plates). 

Group  of  Admetiis  and  Alcestis  in  architectural  framework  [p.  473J  : 
Sogliano,  op.  cit.,  no.  506. 

Seafights  [p.  474]  :  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  1 576-1 580  (those  of  the 
Macellum  are  shown  in  a  colored  plate  by  Mazois,  Les  ruines  de  Pompei, 
vol.  3,  pi.  46);  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896),  p.  56,  nos.  113-116,  and 
Sogliano.  Mon.  dei  Lincei,  vol.  8  (1898),  p.  310.  fig.  33;  cf.  also  Sogliano 
op.  cit.,  nos.  669-670. 

Xenia  [p.  474]  :  Vitr.  VI.  vii  (x)  4;  Helbig,  Wandegemalde.  nos.  1661- 
1718.     For  fig.  266  cf.  Museo.  Borb.,  vol.  6,  pi.  38  ;   Helbig,  no.  1690. 

Landscapes  [p.  475] :  Roux.  Herculanum  et  Pompei.  vol.  3  (end  ;  30  plates) ; 
Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  pp.  385-394;  Sogliano,  op.  cit..  pp.  141-144. 

Tadius,  Ludius  [p.  475]  :  Plin.  N.  H.  XXXV.  x.  116.  In  Mayhofif's  text 
(vol.  5,  1897)  the  name  is  given  as  Studius.  Cf.  Helbig,  Beitrage  zur  erklai- 
rung  der  campanischen  Wandbilder.  Rhein.  Mus.,  vol.  25  (1870),  pp.  393- 
407.         Decoration  of  the  villa  at  Prima   Porta :   Brunn,  Scavi  di   Prima 


546  l^OMPEll 

Porta,  Bull,  dell"  Inst..  1863.  pp.  81-86:  Antike  Denkmaler  des  Kaiseilich 
deiitschen  Archaologischen  Instituts,  vol.  i  (1890),  pi.  11,  24. 

Group  of  musicians  [p.  476]:  iMuseo  Boib..  vol.  i.  pi.  30;  Helbig, 
Wandegemalde,  no.  1442. 

Paquius  Proculus  and  Jus  wife  [p.  477]  :  Bull.  delP  Inst.,  1868,  p.  204; 
SOGLIANO,  op.  cit.,  no.  673. 

Busts  of  youths  with  the  names  of  Homer  and  Plato  [pp.  477-478]  :  found 
in  1892  in  the  tablinum  of  the  small  house  joined  to  the  house  of  the  Silver 
Wedding  [fig.  146,  8]  ;  reproduced,  with  fuller  description.  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol. 

8  (1893),  PP-  19-23- 

Paintings  of  Achilles  in  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux  [p.  478]  :  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  nos.  1297,  1307. 

Scenes  of  combat  []:».  478]  —  Hercules,  from  Herculaneum :  Pitture  di  Erco- 
lano,  vol.  3,  pi.  47,  p.  247  ;  ibid.,  vol.  4,  pi.  5,  p.  27  ;  and  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  11, 
pi.  9;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde,  nos.  11 24.  1125.  Meledger  and  the  boar . 
FlORELLi,  Descrizione  di  Pompei,  pp.  40.  382  ;  SOGLIANO.  op.  cit.,  nos.  508, 
509.  Achilles  and  t  lie  fleeing  Troilus :  Bull,  dell' Inst.,  1868,  p.  37  ;  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  pp.  460-461  ;  cf.  also  Sogliano,  op.  cit.,  no.  548.  Cojnbat 

between  warrior  and  Amazon:  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1871,  p.  204;  Sogliano,  op. 
cit.,  no.  547,  cf.  also  no.  548. 

Jo  and  Argus,  lo  in  Egypt  [p.  479]  :  Museo  Borb.,  vol.  2,  pi.  12,  vol.  10, 
pi.  2  ;  Roux,  Herculanum  et  Pompei,  vol.  2,  pi.  59;  Helbig,  Wandgemalde, 
nos.  131,  138.  Cf.  Braun,  Elenco  dei  monument!  rappresentanti  il  mito  di 
lo,  Ann.  deir  Inst.,  vol.  10  (1838),  pp.  328-330,  and  Mon.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  2, 
pi.  59. 

Hecuba  [p.  479]  :  Bull.  delP  Inst.,  1877,  p.  13;  Mau,  Ettore  riportato  a 
Troia,  pittura  paretaria  di  Pompei,  Ann.  dell'  Inst.,  vol.  49  (1877),  pp.  268- 
279,  and  pi.  O,  P  (colored,  at  the  end  of  the  volume)  ;  Sogliano,  op.  cit., 
no.  579. 

Narcissus,  Polyphemus,  Apollo,  and  Admetus  [pp.  479-480]  :  Helbig, 
Wandgemalde,  nos.  1338-1367,  Sogliano,  op.  cit.,  nos.  586-592;  Helbig, 
nos.  220-222,  1048. 

Idyllic  pictures  [p.  480]  —Selene  and  Endymion  :  Helbig,  Wandgemalde, 
nos.  950-962  ;  Sogliano,  op.  cit.,  nos.  456-457.  Paris  and  Oenone :  Hel- 
big, no.  1280.  Perseus  and  Andromeda :  Helbig,  nos.  1 192-1 198.  Bac- 
chus and  Ariadne:  Helbig,  nos.  1235-1240;  Sogliano,  no.  538;  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  II  (1896),  pp.  5-2-53  (no.  98,  house  of  the  Vettii).  Hercules 
andOmphale:  Helbig,  nos.  1136-1140;  cf.  Sogliano,  nos.  496,  497. 

Exainples  of  a  pathetic  situation  [p.  480] — Aphrodite  and  the  wounded 
Adonis:  Helbig,  nos.  335-340;  Sogliano,  no.  142.  Cyparissus :  So- 
gliano, nos.  109,  no;  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896),  p.  19  (no.  36,  with  illus- 
tration, house  of  the  Vettii).  Europa  and  the  bull:  Sogliano,  no.  79; 
cf.  Helbig,  nos.  123-130. 

Groups  with  figures  in  contrast  [p.  480]  —  Hephaestus  and  Thetis:  Helbig, 
nos.  1316-1318C.         Daedalus  and Pasiphae  :  Helbig,  nos.  1205-1208:  Rom. 


Il 


APPENDIX  547 

iMitth..  vol.  II.  pp.  49-51    (witli  illustration,  house  of  the  Vettii).         Danae 
cast  away :  Helbig,  nos.  119-121  :   SoGLiANO,  nos.  76-78. 

Paintings  in  groups  [p.  481]:  Trendelenburg,  Gegenstucke  in  der 
Wandmalerei,  Archaologische  Zeitung,  vol.  9  (1876),  pp.  1-8,  79-93.  Group 
of  three  paintings,  Achilles:  Bull,  deir  Inst.,  1879,  PP-  5''~54  (Ins.  IX.  v.  2)  ; 
SOGLIANO,  nos.  572,  576,  577.  Group  of  two,  Polyphemus,  Aphrodite  fish- 
ing: Bull,  deir  Inst.,  1876,  pp.  49-50;  Sogliano,  nos.  146,  472  (Ins.  VI. 
XIV.  28)  ;  Helbig,  nos.  354,  1049  (house  of  Lucretius).  Group  of  two, 
Europa  and  Pan:  SoGLiANO,  nos.  79,  196  (Ins.  IX.  V.  18).  Double 
group,  Hercules  and  Artemis,  Athena  and  Marsyas:  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  5 
(1890),  pp.  263-269  (with  illustrations),  vol.  6  (1891),  pp.  71-72  (Ins.  V. 
II.  10). 


CHAPTER    LVI.      MONUMENTAL    INSCRIPTIONS    AND    PUBLIC 

NOTICES 

Publication :  in  the  notes  to  the  preceding  chapters  references  have  been 
given  to  the  place  of  publication  of  nearly  all  the  monumental  inscriptions, 
both  Latin  and  Oscan ;  the  Latin  inscriptions  on  stone  are  classified  C.  I.  L. 
X.  787-1079,  with  a  supplementary  collection,  Ephem.  Epigr.,  vol.  8,  pp.  86- 
90  (nos.  311-332);  cf.  also  Not.  d.  scavi,  1898,  pp.  422-423.  The  Oscan 
inscriptions  of  all  classes  are  published  by  Zvetaieff,  Sylloge  Inscriptionum 
Oscarum  (with  19  plates  of  facsimiles;  St.  Petersburg  and  Leipzig,  1878); 
Inscriptiones  Italiae  inferioris  mediae  (with  11  plates;  Moscow  and  Leipzig, 
1886)  ;  VON  Planta,  Grammatik  der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte  (2  vols., 
Strassburg,  1892,  1897),  vol.  2.  pp.  499-510  (nos.  28-116)  ;  Conway,  The  Italic 
Dialects  (2  vols.,  London,  1897),  vol.  2,  pp.  54-81  (nos.  39-86).  The  public 
notices  are  collected  in  C.  I.  L.  IV.  pp.  1-75  (nos.  1-1204),  pp.  xvi-xvii  (nos. 
3256-3296).  and  the  Supplement,  pt.  2,  which  is  in  press,  pp.  467-499  (nos. 
3341-3884). 

House  of  Aeniilius  Celer  [p.  486]  :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  4  (1889),  pp. 
118-119. 

Election  notices  [p.  487]  — M.  Marius :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  3.  Publius  Eurius: 
ibid.,    67.         Herennius  Celsus :    ibid.,   299.  Casellius :    ibid.,  223  et  al., 

and  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896),  p.  96.  Holconius  Priscus:  C.  I.  L. 
IV.    157.         ///("  aerariu/n  conservabit :  C  I.   L.   IV^.   Suppl.  3702.  Clau- 

dius Verus :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  367,  Suppl.  5229,  and  often  between  nos.  3707  and 
3828. 

Election  notices  [pp.  488-489]—  Helvius  Sabinus  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  787.  M. 
Epidius  Sabinus :  ibid.,  470.  Sabinus:  ibid.,  635.  Epidius  Sabinus :  ibid., 
787.      Vatia:  ibid.,  575,  576,  581.      Claudius:  ibid.,  425. 

N'otices  to  rent  —  insida  of  Nigidius  Maiiis  [p.  489]:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  138. 
Property  offulia  Eelix  [p.  490]  :   ibid.,  1136. 

Offer  of  reward  [p.  490]  :   C.  I.  L.  IV.  64. 


548  POMPEII 


CHAPTER   LVII.      THE   GRAFFITI 

Publication :  the  graffiti  are  collected.  C  I.  L.  IV.  pp.  76-166  (nos.  1205- 
2549  c),  pp.  xvii-xviii  (nos.  3297-3339).  and  Suppl..  pt.  2.  pp.  499-599  (nos. 
3885  et  seq.).  Cf.  Correra.  Graffiti  di  Roma.  Bull,  com.,  1893.  pp.  245-260. 
1894,  pp.  89-100,  and  pis.  ii-vi.  1895,  pp.  193-216. 

Adtniro}\  paries  [p.  491]  :  found  in  the  Large  Theatre,  the  Amphitheatre, 
and  the  Basilica:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1904,  2461,  2487:  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1867,  pp. 
50-53;  Bull.  com..  1894,  p.  99:  BuECHELER.  Camiina  Latina  epigraphica, 
no.  957  (vol.  I.  Leipzig.  1895).  p.  440.  References  to  writing  on  walls  ijt 
ancient  authors:  Plin.  Epist.  VIII.  viii.  7:  Mart.  Ep.  XII.  lxi.  7-10:  Cic. 
In  Verr.  III.  xxxiii.  "j"] .  Metrical  graffiti:  Buecheler.  Die  metrischen 
Wandinschriften,  Rhein.  Mus..  vol.  12  (1857).  pp.  250-260. 

Graffiti  relating  to  the  conflict  in  the  Amphitheatre  [p.  492]  :  see  references 
on  pp.  529-530. 

Praetorian  guard  [p.  492]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1994. 

A^ames  and  greetings  [p.  493] — Paris.  Sabinits :  C.  I.  L.  I\'.  1245.  I3°5- 
Aeniilius:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  5350.  Saniins.  Pyrrhits :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1864. 
1852. 

Lo7'e  [p.  494]  —  Qitisqiiis  atnat :  Bull,  dell"  Inst..  1876.  p.  233  :  C.  I.  L.  W . 
Suppl.  4091  ;  cf.  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1 173.  3199:  Bl'ECHeler.  Carm.  Lat.  epigr.,  nos. 
945,  946,  Ne7no  est  belliis :  C.  I.  L.  W .  1883:  Buecheler,  233;  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  13  (1898).  p.  45.  Nam  nemo  flammas :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1898; 
Buecheler,  948.  Alliget  hie  auras:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1649;  Buecheler.  944. 
Si quis forte  mcam:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1645  :  Buecheler,  953,  954. 

Quotations  and  paraphrases  [p.  495]:  Propert.  II.  v.  9:  C.  I.  L.  IV. 
Suppl.  4491  ;  Bull,  dell"  Inst.,  1875,  p.  191  :  Ovid.  Ars  Am.  I.  475-476,  and 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  1895. 

Lovers''  tnessages  [p.  495] —  Victoria:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  1477.  Cestilia:  ibid.. 
2413  h.  Pupa:  ibid.,  1234:  Buecheler,  no.  232.  Serena-  Bull,  dell" 
Inst.,  1874.  p.  269;  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  3928-3930.  Si  quid  amor:  Not.  d. 
scavi,  1883.  p.  53;   Buecheler,  no.  935. 

Lovers''  complaints  [p.  496]  :  Tu.  dea  :  C  I.  L.  IV.  2310 -f'.  Quoted  coup- 
lets joined:  ibid.,  1893.  1894.  Threat  against  Venus:  ibid..  1824;  Rom. 
Mitth.,  vol.  8  (1893),  p.  59  (no.  29) :  Buecheler,  no.  947. 

Records  of  tarrying  [p.  496]  — Romula :  C.  I.  L.  YV .  2060.  Staphilus: 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  SuppL  4087.  Restitutus:  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  7  (1892),  p.  25; 
Buecheler,  355.  Varus  and  Pelagia  :  C.  I.  L.  W .  2321.  Balbus  and 
Fortunata:  Bull,  dell"  Inst..  1883.  p.  195  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  4933. 

Greeting  of  Hirtia  Psacas  [p.  497].  Bull,  dell"  Inst.,  1894,  p.  201  :  C.  I. 
L.  IV.  Suppl.  3905. 

Memoranda  [p.  497] — gambling:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  21 19.  Paces:  ibid.,  1714. 
Advent  of  young:  Bull.  delP  Inst.,  1874,  p.  202;  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  3890. 
Figures:    C.   I.   L.   IV.  1996,  2008.  2011.  2020.  etc.  Oleum  I.  a.:    C.  I.  L. 

IV.  Suppl.  4000:    Fiorelli.  Descrizione  di  Pompei.  p.  59. 


APPENDIX  549 

Catchwords,  quotations.  pi07'erbs  [p.  498]  :  Verg.  Aen.  I.  i :  C.  I.  L.  IV. 
1282,  2361,  3198.  Aen.  II.  J  :  ibid.,  2213,  and  often;  Rom.  Mitth..  vol.  8 
(1893).  p.  57.1  Liter.  I.  I :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  3072.  Minimum  malum:  ibid., 
1811,1870.         Moram  si  quaeres :  ibid.,  2069. 

CHAPTER   LVIII.      INSCRIPTIONS    RELATING    TO    BUSINESS 

AFFAIRS 

Tablets  of  Caeciliusjucutidus  [p.  4996'/ ^t^.] :  edited  by  Zangemeister.C  I.L. 
IV.  Suppl.  fasc.  I  (1898)  ;  first  published  by  de  Petra,  Le  tavolette  cerate 
di  Pompei  rinvenute  a'  3  e  5  Luglio,  1875  (Rome,  1876),  also  in  Atti  della 
R.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  ser.  2,  vol.  3,  pp.  3,  150-230;  cf.  Mommsen,  Die 
Pompeianischen  Ouittungstafeln  des  L.  Caecilius  lucundus.  Hermes,  vol.  12 
(1879),  pp.  88-141  ;  Mommsen,  Pompeianische  Geschaftsurkunden,  Hermes, 
vol.  23  (1888),  pp.  157-159;  Bruns,  Fontes  iuris  Romani  antiqui  (Edit.  6, 
1893),  pp.  291-293,314-320. 

Of  interest  in  this  connection  are  the  remains  of  wax  tablets  found  in  the 
gold  mines  near  Verespatak  (ancient  Alburnus  Maior)  in  Transylvania  (C.  I.  L. 
III.  pp.  921-960),  and  the  records  of  transactions  found  on  papyri  of  the 
Roman  period  in  Egypt  (cf.,  e.g.,  Schulten,  Ein  romischer  Kaufvertrag  auf 
Papyrus  aus  dem  Jahre  166  n.  Chr.,  Hermes,  vol.  32,  1897,  pp.  273-289). 

Tablet  A  [p.  502]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  3340.  xxv ;  de  Petra,  no.  15. 

Tablet  B  [p.  504]  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  3340,  cxLvii ;  de  Petra,  no.  124. 

Inscriptions  on  amphorae  [p.  505]  — ex f undo  Badiano  :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  2551. 
Estate  uncertain :  C.  I.  L.  IV.  2552  (names  of  the  consuls  incorrectly  given). 
fundus  Satrianus,  fundus  Asinianus :  Mau,  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896), 
p.  96;    Not.  d.  scavi,  1895,  p.  33. 

Brands  of  wine  [pp.  505-506]  —  0//V////W ;  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  13  (1898), 
p.  40.  Coum:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  2565.  AuVtios  :  Rcim.  Mitth.,  vol.  8  (1893), 
p.  60.         A.(.VKOvva.pLov:  Bull,  dell'  Inst.,  1874,  p.  264. 

Gustaticium  [p.  506]  :   Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  Ii  (1896),  p.  96. 

Edibles  [p.  506] — Oliva  alba  duke:  C.  I.  L.  IV.  2610.  Lomentum : 
ibid.,  2597.  g-f:  ibid.,  2576.  Liquamen :  ibid.,  see  Index,  p.  243; 
Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  13  (1898),  p.  30. 

Names  of  proprietor,  consignor,  consignee  [p.  507] — M.  Caesius  Celer : 
C.  I.  L.  IV.  Suppl.  Virnius  Modestus :  Not.  d.  Scavi,  1881,  p.  195.  Cae- 
cilius fucundus :  Bull.  delP  Inst.,  1876,  p.  24.  Caecili  lucundi :  C.  I.  L.  IV. 
Suppl.  3433. 

Inscriptions  of  the  Boscoreale  treasure  [p.  507]  :  published  in  facsimile  by 
Heron  de  Villefosse,  Le  tresor  de  Boscoreale ;  see  pp.  42  et  seq. 

Inscription  of  the  Alexandria  patera  [p.  507]  : 

PHI-ET.  EMB.P.P-IISZIOVI.       PHI  •  P- P- IIZ^  .  EMB- P.  P.  S-:§ 

1  "Virgil's  words,  'Then  were  all  silent,'  look  strangely  in  a  half-finished  scrawl  from  a 
wall  of  Pompeii's  hushed  and  solitary  homes."  —  Myers,  Essays  Classical  (London, 
1897),  p.  149. 


550 


POMPEII 


Stamps  [p.  508]  :  for  the  stamped  and  other  permanent  inscriptions  on 
tiles,  lamps,  amphorae,  and  different  kinds  of  terra-cotta  vessels  found  at  Pom- 
peii, as  well  as  the  stamps  and  seals,  see  the  second  part  of  C.  I.  L.  X..  under 
Instrumentum  Domesticum. 

Examples  of  stamps  [p.  508]  —bread:  C.  I.  L.  X.  8058.  18.  Popidms 
Priscus:  ibid.,  8058,  70.  Vettii:  Rom.  Mitth.,  vol.  11  (1896).  p.  3. 


INDEX 


Abinnerich,  i8. 

Acceptus  and  Euhodia,  house  of,  341-343. 

accounts,  memoranda  of,  on  walls,  334,  495; 
of  Caecilius  Jucundus,  496. 

Acerrae,  Pompeii  seaport  of,  3. 

Achilles,  in  paintings  :  among  the  daughters 
of  Lycomedes,  350,  478,  481;  delivering 
up  of  Briseis,  317 ;  quarrel  with  Agamem- 
non, 84,  350,  478 ;  Thetis  bringing  arms 
to,  see  Thetis  ;   Troilus  seized  by,  478. 

Actius  Anicetus,  actor,  148. 

Admetus  and  Alcestis,  painting,  313. 

aediles,  office  of,  121, 123;  title  of,  12,  13. 

Aemiliiis  Celer,  writer  of  notices,  223,  486. 

Aeneas,  statue  of,  115. 

Aesculapius,  worshipped  at  domestic  shrine, 
272. 

Agamemnon,  in  the  sanctuary  of  Artemis, 
painting,  331 ;  quarrel  with  Achilles,  paint- 
ing, 84,  350,  478. 

Agrippina,  mother  of  Nero,  statues  of,  47, 
99. 

alae,  sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares,  102 ;  of 
Pompeian  house,  258-259. 

Alexander  and  Da:ius,  battle  of,  mosaic, 
293-294. 

Alexandria,  influence  of,  in  the  development 
of  decorative  styles,  458,  465. 

Alleia  Decimilla,  priestess  of  Ceres,  426. 

M.  AUeius  Luccius  Libella,  tomb  of,  426. 

M.  Alleius  Minius,  tomb  of,  430. 

Cn.  Alleius  Nigidius  Maius,  222,  349,  489. 

altar  in  dining  room,  264. 

altars,  in  the  courts  of  temples :  of  Apollo, 
86;  of  Isis,  174;  of  Doric  temple,  139; 
temple  of  Vespasian,  107  ;  temple  of  Zeus 
Milichius,  183,  440;  on  the  sides  of  the 
streets,  233-236. 

Amphitheatre,  26,  212-226. 

amphorae,  use  of,  14;  in  the  house  of  the 
Faun,  295;  in  the  villa  of  Diomedes,  360; 
irfscriptions  upon,  505-506. 

Anchor,  peristyle  of  the  house  of  the,  351. 

andron  in  Pompeian  houses,  260. 

P.  Aninius,  195. 

antefixes  about  compluvium,  251. 

Antioch,  469. 

Apelles,  277. 


Aphrodite,  statue  of,  450. 

Apollo,  house  of,  262,  268,  273,  351  ;  repre- 
sented in  stucco  relief  and  in  paintings,  205, 
312,  329,  331,  480;  statues  of,  88,  140,  272, 
352;  temple  of,  49,  80,  90. 

Apuleius  and  Veia,  tomb  of,  434. 

Apuleiiis  on  the  worship  of  Isis,  169,  173, 
174,  176,  181,  182. 

architectural  periods  at  Pompeii,  39-44. 

architecture,  Pompeian,  437-444. 

architiaves  of  timber  and  stone,  51. 

Ares  and  Aphrodite,  painting,  286. 

Ariadne,  in  paintings.  See  Bacchus,  Theseus. 

arm  band,  379. 

Arria,  tomb  of,  428. 

M.  Arrius  Diomedes,  tomb  of,  356,  427. 

Artemis,  in  paintings,  315;  Agamemnon  in 
sanctuary  of,  331;  shrine  of,  481;  statues 
of,  88,  450. 

artist  at  work,  painting,  282. 

M.  Artorius  Primus,  architect  of  the  Large 
Theatre,  150. 

Atella,  Atellan  farces,  142. 

Athena  and  Marsyas,  painting,  482. 

M.  Atinius,  200. 

atrium  of  Pompeian  houses,  250-255  ;  atrium 
without  a  compluvium,  343-344. 

Atticus,  gladiator,  223-224. 

Auctus,  gladiator,  225. 

Augustales,  100,  216,  409,  421,  423. 

Augustus  Caesar,  Brotherhood  of.  See  Au- 
gustales ;  regulation  of  standard  measures, 
93;  statues  of,  47,  115;  worship  of,  14,  89- 
90,  104. 

Auriolus,  gladiator,  224. 

autumn,  Genius  of,  mosaic,  293. 

L.  Avianius  Flaccus,  243. 

bacchantes,  326,  336,  448,  468,  473. 

bacchic  figures  in  capitals  of  columns,  309, 
349;  in  paintings,  329. 

Bacchus,  reliefs  of  Blue  Glass  Vase,  415 ; 
triumph  of,  336;  in  paintings,  88,  354;  as 
tutelary  divinity,  236,  417 ;  finds  Ariadne, 
339.354.480;  in  sculptures,  175,325,448. 

bakery,  arrangements  of,  386-392. 

Basilica,  52,  70-79. 

bath,  toilet  appliances  of,  377. 


552 


INDEX 


Baths,  public,  1S6-189;  Stabian,  189-201; 
Baths  near  the  Forum,  202-207  '.  Central 
Baths,  208-211; — private,  of  M.  Crassus 
Frugi.  408 ;  in  houses,  267,  297,  2'°^S^< 
346,  357.  362-363. 

Bay  of  Naples,  2,  6,  358. 

bisellium,  369,  370,  421,  423. 

block.     See  Insula. 

Boccharis,  myth  of,  17. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  excavations  under,  27. 

Boscoreale,  villa  rustica  at,  14,  361-366 ; 
treasure  of,    366,  380-382,  507-508. 

bricks,  Pompeian,  36. 

Briseis,  delivered  to  the  messenger  of  Aga- 
memnon, painting,  316-318. 

building  materials,  35-36. 

bust  stones,  412,418,  421,  428,432  et  seq. 

L.  Caecilius  Jucundus,  herm   of,  447,  477; 

house  of,  height  of  shops,  276;  cellar  of, 

268;    decoration   of   tablinum,   348,   479; 

meeting  in  house  of,  496 ;  names  of  sons 

of,  507  ;  receipts  of,  499-505 ;  relief  in  the 

house  of,  64. 
L.  Caecilius  Phoebus,  176. 
Julius  Caesar,  place  for  statue  of,  115. 
P.  Caesetius  Postumus,  90. 
L.  Caesius,  203. 
M.  Caesius  Celer,  507. 
L.  Caesius  Logus,  433. 
Caligula,  elected  duumvir  of  Pompeii,   14; 

statue  of  (?),  48. 
Callimachus,  inarble  head,  447. 
Callistus.  424. 

C.  Calventius  Quietus,  tomb  of,  421. 
Campani,  Campanienses,  suburb  of  Pompeii, 

II,  492. 
Campania,  events  in  the  history  of,  8-10. 
Campanian  plain,  i,  2. 
candelabra,  372-375. 
capitals  of  columns,  437,  440-441. 
Capri,  6,  406. 

casa  deir  Amore  Punito,  275. 
casa  del  Balcone  Pensile,  273. 
casa  della  Fontana  Grande,  351. 
casa  della  Fontana  Piccola;  351. 
Casellius,  487. 
Cassius  Longinus,  141. 
Castellammare.     See  Stabiae. 
Castor  and  Pollux,  house  of,  350 ;  Corinthian 

atrium,  252;  paintings,  476,  481. 
casts  made  at  Pompeii,  human  beings,  22 ; 

doors,  249. 
Cato  the  elder,  reference  to  millstones,  15. 
Ceius  Labeo,  tomb  of,  426. 
L.  Ceius  Secundus,  397. 
Celadus,  gladiator,  226. 
Celer,  486. 


Centaur,  house  of,  350;  bedroom  in  house 

of,  261. 
Centenary,  house  of,  261,  268,  348,  487. 
Ceres,  priestesses  of,  14,  426. 
M.  Cerrinius  Restitutus,  tomb  of,  409. 
Cestilia,  495. 
chairs,  367,  369. 
chalcidicum,  iii. 
Championnet,  excavations  of,  27. 
Chius,  493. 

choinix,  Greek  measure,  93. 
Christians  at  Pompeii,  18. 
Chryseis,  departure  of,  painting,  316. 
Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  16,  58,  423. 
Citharist,  house  of,  352-354 ;  fountain  figures 

in  the  house  of,  449. 
city  council,  constitution  of,  12;  hall  of,  121, 

122. 
City  Lares,  sanctuary  of  the,  102-105. 
city  wall,  construction  of,  237-241 ;    course 

of,  31. 
Claudius,  statues  of,  47,  99. 
Ti.  Claudius  Verus,  487,  489. 
Clitumnus,  2. 

A.  Clodius  Flaccus,  57,  90,  161. 
L.  Clodius  \'arus,  496. 
Cnidian  wine,  sold  at  Pompeii,  505. 
Coan  wine,  sold  at  Pompeii,  505. 
Coliseum,    dimensions    of,   213 ;    masts   for 

awnings  of,  144. 
combs,  377-378. 
Comitium,  119-120. 

compluvium  of  the  Pompeian  house,  250. 
Concordia  Augusta,  fountain  of,  117;  statue 

of,  116. 
Constantinople,  water  system,  231,  232. 
construction,  Pompeian,  36-39. 
Conviva,  slave  of  Veia,  434. 
Corinthian  atrium,  252,  309,  350. 
Cornelius,  493. 
A.  Cornelius,  86. 
Cn.  Cornelius,  86. 
P.  Cornelius,  9. 
Cornelius  Rufus,  herm  of,  255,  446;   house 

of.  354- 
couches,  257,  263,  367,  368. 
country  seats  near  Pompeii,  16.     See  villa. 
M.  Crassus  Frugi,  baths  of,  408. 
Crescens,  fuller,  11;  gladiator,  226. 
crypta,  ill,  148. 
Cumae,  305. 
Cupids,  in  paintings  and  stucco  reliefs,  97, 

205.  315.  331-338. 
Cycnus,  gladiator,  223-224. 
Cyparissus,  paintings,  338,  480. 

Daedalus,  and  Icarus,  paintings,  200,  483 ; 
and  Pasiphae,  paintings,  339,  480. 


INDEX 


553 


Danae,  painting,  338. 

Sex.  Decimius  Rutus,  492. 

Q.  Decius  Hilaius,  436. 

decoration,  styles  of,  41  et  seq.,  456  et  seq. 

decurions,  12. 

"Delos,   remains    of    Incrustation    Style    on 

island  of,  461. 
Demosthenes,  marble  head,  447. 
dining  room  in  Pompeian  houses,  262-266, 

273-276. 
Diodota,  497. 
Diogenes,  mason,  387. 
Diomedes,  tomb  of,  427 ;  villa  of,  23,  356- 

360. 
Dion  Cassius,  20,  196. 
Dionysus,  in  painting,  282,  463  ;  statuette  of, 

452- 
Dirce,  punishment  of,  painting,  339. 
Doerpfeld's  theory  of  the  stage  of  the  Greek 

theatre,  151-152. 
ilolia,  use  of,  505 ;  in  the  villa  at  Boscoreale, 

key  to  Plan  IV,  364;  in  a  painting,  403. 
doors,  of  houses,  249-250;  of  the  temple  of 

Jupiter,  64. 
Doric   temple   in  the    Forum    Triangulare, 

137-140- 
duumvirs,  office  of,  121-123 ;   title  of,  12. 

earthquake  of  63  .^.D.,  19. 

C.  Egnatius  Postumus,  85. 

Egyptian  motives  in  wall  decoration,  465. 

Elbeuf,  Count,   excavations  of,  at  Hercula- 

neum,  26. 
election  notices,  384,  396,  397,  486-489. 
Epicurus,  marble  head,  447. 
Epidius  Rufus,  house  of,  248,  252,  258,  260, 

309-312;    inscription   upon  shrine  in  the 

house  of,  270. 
M.  Epidius  Sabinus,  488. 
Eumachia,  building  of,  110-118;   statue  of, 

112,445,446. 
Europa,  painting,  286,  480. 
Euiysaces,  kneading   machine  in  reliefs  of 

tomb  of,  392. 
Eutyches,  slave  of  Umbricius  Scaurus,  506. 
excavations,   at    Pompeii,   25-30;    in  honor 

of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Italy  and  the 

Emperor  and  Empress  of  Germany,  301, 

306;  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II., 

344- 

fasces,  on  the  tomb  of  Diomedes,  428. 

fauces  of  Pompeian  house,  248. 

Faun,  house  of  the,  27,  51,  261,  276,  288-297. 

festivals,  religious,  57,  98,  337,  396. 

Fiorelli,  28-29,  34>  349- 

fisheries,  products  of,  15,  506. 

N.  Fistius  Ampliatus,  419. 


floors  of  Pompeian  houses,  278. 

P'ontana,  Domenico,  tunnel  of,  under  Pom- 
peii, 25. 

Fortuna,  worshipped  at  doinestic  shrines, 
104  ;  identified  with  Isis,  342. 

Foituna  Augusta,  temple  of,  124-126. 

Forlunatus,  497. 

F"orum,  45-60. 

Forum  Triangulare,  134-137. 

fountain  of  Concordia  Augusta,  wrongly 
called  of  Abundantia,  117. 

fountains,  public,  230-233 ;  veneered  with 
mosaic,  351. 

fullers  erect  a  statue  to  Eumachia,  112.  See 
Crescens,  Vesonius  Primus. 

fullery,  plan  of,  396-397;   processes  of,  335, 

393-395- 
fundus  Asinianus,  fundus  Satrianus,  505. 
P.  Furius,  487. 
furniture  of  Pompeian  houses,  367-379. 

Ganymede,  stucco  relief,  205. 

garden  of  Pompeian  houses,  259. 

Garland  tomb,  414. 

gartibulum,  254,  368. 

gates  of  Pompeii,  31,  241  et  seq. 

C.  Gavius  Rufus,  397. 

Genii,  in  the  shrine  of  the  house  of  Joseph 

11,346- 

Genius,  worship  of  the,  269-273  ;  of  a 
woman,  346;  of  the  autumn,  mosaic,  293. 

genre  paintings,  476-478. 

Germanicus,  48,  99. 

gladiators,  barracks  of,  160-164;  combats 
of,  in  the  Forum ,  57 ;  stucco  reliefs  on  the 
tomb  of  Umbricius  Scaurus,  419,  420; 
graffiti  relating  to,  223-226;  notices  of  ex- 
hibitions of,  221-223. 

Glaucus,  house  of,  313. 

Glycera,  letter  to  Menander,  329. 

gods,  the  twelve,  painting,  236 ;  statues  of, 
at  Pompeii,  449;  worshipped  at  domestic 
shrines,  268-273.     ^c*^  temples. 

graffiti,  491-498. 

Greeks  at  Pompeii,  16-17,  505- 

gustaticium,  506. 

Hadrian,  villa  at  Tivoli,  355. 

Hannibal,  9. 

Harpocrates,  worship  of,  168  et  seq. 

hearth,  in  Pompeian  kitchen,  266-267;  fo'' 

open-air  triclinia,  285,  342. 
Hecuba,  painting,  479. 
helmet  found  in  gladiators'  barracks,  163. 
Cn.  Helvius,  396. 
Cn.  Helvius  Sabinus,  397,  488. 
Helvius  Vestalis,  384. 
Hephaestus,  in  a  painting,  339. 


554 


INDEX 


Herculaneum,  burial  of,  21 ;  excavations  at, 
26. 

Herculaneum  Gate,  31,  244. 

Hercules,  in  paintings,  339,  478,  480,  481  ; 
worshipped  at  domestic  shrines,  104,  272, 
308,  417. 

Herennius  Celsus,  487. 

M.  Herennius  Epidianus,  86,  136. 

herms.  See  Caecilius  Jucundus,  Cornelius 
Rufus,  Sorex,  Vesonius  Primus. 

Hermaiscus,  gladiator,  225. 

hermaphrodite,  statue  of,  87. 

Hermes,  inn  of,  401,  402. 

Hirtia  Psacas,  497. 

Holconii,  rebuilders  of  the  Large  Theatre, 
148. 

M.  Holconius,  house  of,  354. 

M.  Holconius  Celer,  148-149. 

M.  Holconius  Prisons,  384,  487. 

M.  Holconius  Rutus,  85,  90,  148-149,  445. 

Homer,  478. 

Horace,  90,  270,  428. 

C.  Hostilius  Conops,  497. 

household  gods,  worship  of,  104,  268-273, 
297,  308,  315.  323.  342,  346,  362. 

house,  Ponipeian,  245-279.  See  Acceplus 
and  Euhodia,  Anchor,  .Apollo,  Castor  and 
Pollux,  Centaur,  Centenary,  Citharist,  Epi- 
dius  Rufus,  Faun,  Hunt,  Joseph  II,  Pansa, 
Porta  Marina,  Sallust,  Silver  Wedding, 
Surgeon,  Tragic  Poet,  Vettii,  Villa.  See 
also  casa. 

Hyginius  Firmus,  inn  of,  400. 

impluvium  of  Pompeian  house,  250. 

inns,  400-402. 

inscriptions,  graffiti,  11,  70,  148,223-226,  270, 
305,  385,401,  404,  491-498  ;  monumental  in- 
scriptions, defined,  486;  examples,  50, 
81,  85,  86,  89,  III,  112,  130,  148,  149,  150, 
153,  170,  195,  203,  212,  218,  228,  407,  409, 
410, 418, 419,  421,  422,  425, 426, 427, 430, 432, 
434;  public  notices,  221-223,  382,  386,  396- 
397,  400,  435-436,  486,  489;  relating  to 
business  affairs,  499-508. 

Insula,  defined,  33-34. 

lo  and  -Argus,  painting,  96,  479. 

Tphigenia,  sacrifice  of,  painting,  318-320, 472. 

Isis,  temple  and  worship  of,  168-184. 

Istacidia  Rufiila,  priestess,  412. 

Istacidii,  tomb  of,  411. 

Italic  foot,  44. 

Ixion,  punishment  of,  painting,  339-340. 

jewellery,  379. 
Jews  at  Pompeii,  17-18. 
Joseph  II,  house  of,  344-347. 
Julia  Felix,  villa  of,  26,  490. 


C.  Julius  Speratus,  401. 

luno.  Genius  of  a  woman,  270,  418. 

Jupiter,  head,  67-69;  temple  of,  61-67;  ■wor- 
shipped at  domestic  shrines,  272;  at  street 
shrine,  235. 

kitchen  in  Pompeian  houses,  266-268. 
kitchen  utensils,  375. 
kneading  machine,  391-392. 

Labyrinth,  oecus  in  the  house  of  the,  265. 

lamps,  370-372. 

lamp  standards,  372  et  seq. 

landscape  paintings,  473. 

Lares,  City,  102-105  I  Compitales,  233-235  ; 

domestic,  269.     See  household  gods, 
lava,  kinds  of,  36;  used  for  millstones,  15. 
Leda,  painting,  338. 

limestone,  kinds  used  at  Pompeii,  35,  36. 
limestone  atriums,  period  of,  39. 
limestone  framework,  37. 
Livius  Andronicus,  141. 
Livineius  Regulus,  219. 
loss  of  life  at  time  of  eruption,  23. 
Lucretius,  house  of,  348,  449,  457. 

D.  Lucretius  Satrius  Valens,  222. 
Lytton,  Bulwer,  219. 

Macellum,  94-101. 

Magister,  of  the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  14. 

Maia,  herm  of,  88,  89. 

Mamia,  totnb  of,  410. 

P.  Mancius  Diogenes,  tomb  of,  432. 

Manetho,  168. 

Marcellus,  statues  of,  98,  136. 

M.  Marcellus,  9. 

M.  Marius,  487. 

market  buildings,  62,  91-93. 

Mars,  worshipped  at  domestic  shrines,  272. 

Mars  and  Venus,  stucco  reliefs,  179. 

Marsyas,  in  paintings,  312,  482. 

masonry,  styles  of,  36-39. 

maxims  in  graffiti,  498. 

Medea,  painting,  96. 

Medusa,  relief  on  fountain  standard,  230. 

Meleager,  house  of,  265,  351;   in  paintings, 

478. 
Cn.  Melissaeus  Aper,  412. 
Mercury,  as  tutelary  divinity,  236,  408  ;  herm 

of  88  ;  relief  of,  230. 
mills,  388-390. 
millstones,  15,  387-390. 
Minerva,  140,  236,  240,  243,  395. 
ministri  Augusti,  89. 
ministri  Fortunae  Augustae,  132. 
ministri  of  the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  14. 
mirrors,  378. 
Misenum,  7,  19,  20,  21. 


INDEX 


555 


mixing  bowl,  376. 

Q.  Monnius  Rufus,  221. 

mosaic  pictures,  278,  288,  290,  292-295,  398- 

399- 
Mummius,  141. 
L.  Munatius  Caeserninns,  435. 
C.  Munatius  Faustus,  422. 
musicians,  painting,  476,  477. 

Naevoleia,  Tyche,  tomb  of,  422-423. 
Narcissus,     statue    wrongly    idenlifieci    as, 

453- 
Nero,  48,  94,  99,  III,  220,  223. 
Nigidius  Vaccula,  197,  198. 
Nile,  creatures  of  the,  mosaic,  293;  worship 

of  water  of,  178,  179. 
Niraemius,  203. 
Nocera.     See  Nuceria. 
Nola,  Pompeii  seaport  of,  3. 
M.  Nonius  Campanus,  387. 
C.  Norbanus  Sorex,  176. 
Nuceria,  Pompeii  seaport  of,  3. 
Nucerians,   conflict    with    Pompeians,    220, 

221,  492. 
nuptials  of  Zeus  and   Hera,  painting,  316- 

317,  483-484. 
nursing  bottle,  372. 

C.  Occius,  203. 

Octavia,  statue  of,  98. 

M.  Oculatius  Verus,  156. 

Odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus,  155. 

oecus  in  Pompeian  houses,  265. 

Oenone  in  paintings,  480. 

Officiosus,  gladiator,  226. 

olive,  culture  of,  about  Pompeii,  14;  crusher, 

365 ;  presses  for  making  oil,  333,  365. 
Omphalos,  81,  331. 
Oppius  Campanius,  80. 
opus    compositum,    opus    incertum,    opus 

mixtum,  37-38;  opus  reticulatum,  38,  43; 

opus  Signinum,  74,  278,  366. 
Orange,  masts  of  theatre  at,  144. 
Orestes  and  Pylades  before  Thoas,  painting, 

353-356.  472,  479. 
Orientals  at  Pompeii,  17. 
Oscan  foot,  44. 
Oscan  graves,  405,  407. 
Oscan    inscriptions,   80,   139,   140,    165,   184, 

240,  242,  243. 
Oscans,  founders  of  Pompeii,  8  ;  conquered 

by  the  Samnites,  9. 
Osiris,  worship  of,  168  et  seq. 
oven,  of  bakery,  391. 
Ovid,  quoted  in  graffiti,  495,  496. 

Paganus,  14,  422. 

Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  14,  218,  427. 


paintings,  number  of,  471 ;  relation  to  deco- 
rative styles,  472-474;  classes  of,  475-484. 

Palaestra,  165-167. 

Pansa,  house  of,  27,  249,  260,  266,  349-350. 

Pansas,  father  and  son,  statues  of,  219. 

P.  Paquius  Proculus,  477. 

Paris,  493. 

Paris  in  paintings,  286,  480. 

Pausanius,  200. 

Penates,  worship  of,  104,  272. 

Pentheus  and  Maenads,  painting,  339,  481. 

peristyle  of  the  Pompeian  house,  260. 

Perseus  with  Andromeda,  represented  in 
stucco  relief  and  paintings,  179,  180,  329, 
480. 

St.  Peter,  bronze  statue  of,  in  Rome,  118. 

Q.  Petronius  Octavus,  gladiator,  226. 

Phrixus  and  Helle,  painting,  286. 

Pietas  Augusta,  in. 

Pithecusans,  492. 

Plato,  478. 

Pliny  the  Elder,  death  of,  19-20. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  account  of  the  eruption 
in  79,  19-22;  villa  of,  355. 

poet,  reciting,  329. 

polychrome  decoration,  441. 

Polyclitus,  dorj'phorus  of,  167. 

Polyphemus  receiving  a  letter  from  Galatea, 
painting,  480,  481. 

Pompeii,  before  79,  8  et  seq.  ;  burial  of,  19-23  ; 
excavation  of,  25-30;  government,  11-14; 
resources,  14-16;  population,  16-18;  value 
of  remains,  509-511. 

N.  Pontius,  184,  242. 

N.  Popidius  Ampliatus,  170. 

N.  Popidius  Celsinus,  170. 

V.  Popidius,  50. 

M.  Porcius,  86. 

M.  Porcius,  153,  212. 

M.  Porcius,  tomb  of,  410. 

portieres  at  entrance  of  tablinum,  256. 

Poseidon  and  Amymone,  painting,  329. 

Postumius  ProcLilus,  386. 

potter's  workshop,  386. 

praefects  at  Pompeii,  13,  14. 

Praetorian  Guard,  492. 

Priene,  remains  of  Incrustation  Style  at,  461. 

priests,  14,  33. 

priestesses,  14,  33,  410,  412. 

Privatus,  slave,  504. 

procession  to  the  theatres,  159. 

Proculus,  488. 

Propertius,  quoted  in  graffito,  495,  496. 

Psyches  gathering  flowers,  painting,  330. 

public  buildings,  location  of,  33,  61,  133. 

public  notices.     See  inscriptions. 

Pugnax,  gladiator,  223-224. 

pumice  stone,  15,  20. 


556 


INDEX 


Puteolana,  497. 
Puteoli,  169,  401,  492. 
Pyrrhus,  493. 

Quasi-reticulate  facing,  38,  42. 
C.  Quinctius  Valgus,  153,  212. 

Regions  of  Pompeii,  34. 

rent,  notices  of  propL-rty  for,  489,  490. 

Restitutus,  496. 

reticulate  facing,  38,  43. 

Rhodian  peristyle,  260,  304. 

Rocca  Monfina,  i,  15. 

Roman  foot,  44. 

Romula,  496. 

Romulus,  statue  of,  115. 

rostra,  48. 

Rothschild,  Baron,  gift  of  Boscoreale  treasure 

to  the  Louvre,  366. 
rubble  work,  37. 
Rullus,  153. 

Sabinus,  488. 

Salinenses,  11. 

Sallust,  house  of,  260,  283-287,  459-460. 

Q.  Sallustius,  statue  of,  47. 

Salus,  worshipped  at  street  shrine,  235. 

Salvius,  tomb  of,  426. 

Samius,  493. 

Samnite  wars,  9. 

Samus,  gladiator,  226. 

Sarno,  river,  2-4,  98. 

Sarno  limestone,  35,  39,  280. 

Saturn,  treasure  in  temple  of,  at  Rome,  67. 

satyr,  ornament  of  capital,  348;  fountain 
figure,  449;  bronze  statue,  451;  marble 
statuette,    315 ;    in   wall    decoration,  469, 

473- 
Scipio  Africanus,  bath  in  villa  of,  208. 
sculpture,  445-453. 
Sculptured  Capitals,  house  of,  348. 
seals  of  witnesses,  500-501. 
Seasons,  paintings,  315. 
second    story   rooms   in    Pompeian    house, 

273-276. 
Seneca,  quoted,  194,  208. 
sepulchral    monument    in    front    of    Doric 

temple,  139.      See  tombs. 
L.  Sepunius  Sandilianus,  86,  136. 
Serapis,  temple  of,  at  Puteoli,  169. 
Serena,  495. 
P.  Servilius  Rullus,  153. 
Setian  wine,  403. 
Seviri  Augustales,  100. 
sewers,  229. 
L.  Sextilius,  86. 
shops,  appearance  of  289 ;  relation  to  house, 

276-278,349;  signs,  387. 


shrines,  at  the  sides  of  the  streets,  233-236; 
domestic,  268-273,  297,  308,  309,  315,  323, 
342,  346,  362,  417,  449  et  scq. 

Signia  pavement,  74,  278,  366. 

Silenus,  bronze  statuette,  451-452;  fountain 
figure,  448. 

Silver  Wedding,  house  of,  265,  301-308. 

M.  Sittius,  184,  242. 

sleeping  rooms  in  Pompeian  house,  261-262. 

Solomon,  Judgment  of,  painting,  17. 

Sorex,  herm  of,  176,  446. 

Sorrento,  6,  358,  406. 

Q.  Spedius  Firmus,  243. 

spoons,  375. 

Q.  Spurennius  Priscus,  492. 

Stabiae,  3,  4,  21,  26,  358. 

stamps,  508. 

standard  measures,  table  of  92-93. 

Staphylus,  496. 

statues  in  public  places,  46,  115,  447;  rep- 
resented in  wall  decoration,  468. 

stepping  stones,  229. 

stocks  in  the  gladiators'  barracks,  163. 

streets  of  Pompeii,  32-33,  227-229 ;  street 
shrines,  233-236. 

strigiles,  188,  377. 

suburbs  of  Pompeii,  lo-ii,  14. 

T.  Suedius  Clemens,  27,  407,  488. 

A.  Suettius  Certus,  222. 

Sulla,  Dictator,  10,  240. 

P.  Sulla,  nephew  of  the  Dictator,  10. 

sundials,  87,  136,  200,  207,  211. 

Surgeon,  house  of  39,  260,  280-282. 

table  of  standard  measures,  92-93. 

tables,  254,  263-264,  326,  368-369. 

tablinum  in  Pompeian  house,  255-258. 

Tadius  [Ludius],  475. 

tannery,  395-397- 

temples,  33;  of  Apollo,  80-90;  Doric,  137- 
140;  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  130-132;  of 
Isis,  168-182;  of  Jupiter,  61-69;  of  Venus 
Pompeiana,  124-129;  of  Vespasian,  106- 
109;  of  Zeus  Milichius,  183-185. 

T.  Terentius  Felix,  tomb  of  413. 

tetrastyle  atrium,  251-252. 

Theatre  Colonnade,  157-164. 

Theatre,  Large,  141-152 ;  Small,  153-156. 

Theseus  and  Ariadne,  painting,  315. 

Thetis  bringing  arms  to  Achilles,  316,481; 
in  the  smithy  of  Hephaestus,  480,  481. 

Tiberius,  48,  iii. 

tiles,  36,  251. 

Timanthes,  319,  320. 

Timotheiis,  168. 

N.  Tintirius  Rufus,  90. 

Titia,  433. 

Titus,  23. 


INDEX 


557 


toilet  articles,  377-379. 

tombs,  405-406;    along   Street   of   Tombs, 

406-428  ;    near    the    Nola,   Stabiaii,   and 

Nocera  gates,  429-436. 
towers  ol  the  city  wall,  238-241. 
trades,  ancient  view  of,  383.     See   bakeiy, 

fullers,  tannery. 
Tragic  Poet,  house  of,  250,  268,  313-320. 
Travertine,  so-called,  35. 
treasury  of  the  city,  91. 
Trebius,  384. 
triclinium  funebre,  424. 
triclinium  in  garden,  house  of  Acceptus  and 

Euhodia,  342;  inn,  404;  house  of  Sailust, 

285  ;  tannery,  398-399.     See  dining  room. 
Trojan  War,  groups  of  paintings,  84,  316. 
tufa,  kinds  of,  35. 
Tufa  Period,  40  et  seq.,  427  et  seq. 
M.  Tullius,  builder  of  the  temple  of  Fortuna 

Augusta,  130,  132. 
M.  Tullius,  tomb  of,  430. 
Tuscan  atrium,  251. 
Tyche,  slave  of  ]ulia  .August.!,  270,  418. 

C.  Ulius,  195,  202. 
Ulysses  and  Penelope,  painting,  96. 
Umbricia  Januaria,  receipt  of,  502. 
Umbricius  Scaurus,  fish  sauces  of,  15,  506. 
A.  Umbricius  Scaurus,  tomb  of,  418-419'. 

C.  Valerius  Venustus,  401. 

Valgus  and  Porcius,  builders  of  Small  Thea- 
tre and  Amphitheatre,  153,  212. 

Varro,  94,  257,  363. 

Vatia,  488-489. 

Veia,  433. 

A.  Veius,  tomb  of,  409. 

N.  Velasius  Grains,  425. 

Venus,  statue  of,  87 ;  threatened  by  irate 
lover,  496. 

Venus  Pompeiana,  12,  272,  350,  490. 

Verus,  384. 

M.  Vesonius  Primus,  396-397,  446. 

Vespasian,  408;  temple  of,  106-109. 

Vesta,  festival  of,  98,  337;  in  hearth  paint- 
ings, 272. 


Vestal  virgins,  place  at  the  theatre,  145. 

Vestals,  house  of  the,  vestibule,  248. 

vestibule  of  Pompeian  houses,  248. 

Vesuvius,  2,  6,  19  et  seq. 

V^ettii,  house  of  the,  321-340;  garden  sculp- 
tures, 449;  hearth,  266  ;  shrine,  272. 

A.  Vettius  Conviva,  A.  Vettius  Restitutus, 
stamps  of,  508. 

Vibius  Adiranus,  165. 

Vibius  Popidius,  243. 

Vibius  Popidius,  quaestor,  50. 

Vibius  Restitutus,  401. 

Cn.  Vibius  Saturninus,  424. 

Vibius  Vinicius,  165. 

Victoria,  495. 

villas,  Roman,  355 ;  of  Diomedes,  356-362 ; 
villa  rustica  at  Boscoreale,  361-366. 

Virgil,  272,  448,  496,  498. 

A.  Virnius  Modestus,  507. 

Vitruvius,  57,  63,  137,  151,  152,  158,  193,  210, 
248,  250,  256,  263,  299,  355,  361. 

D.  Volcius  Thallus,  503. 

walls  of  the  city,  construction  of,  237-239 ; 

course  of,  31. 
walls  of  houses,  plastering  and  decoration, 

i,z^(i  et  seq.     See  masonry. 
ward.     See  Regions, 
water  heater,  for  baths,  194. 
water  system  of  Pompeii,  230-233. 
Weichardt,  restoration  of  Forum  Triangu- 

lare,  137. 
well  near  Doric  temple,  139. 
windows,  in  houses,  279 ;  of  Central  Baths, 

208,  210. 
wine,  fermentation  of,  364,   505 ;    kinds    of, 

506 ;  produced  about  Pompeii,  14  ;  presses, 

336.  363-364- 
wineshops,  402-404. 

Xenion,  474. 

yoke,  228,  404. 

Zeus,  of  Otricoli,  67-69;  in  paintings,  316, 
338. 


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KEY    TO    PLAN    VI 


The  names  of  only  the  more  important  streets  are  given  on  Plan  VI. 
Among  the  names  omitted  are  those  of  the  continuations  of  Nola  Street, 
which  it  is  more  convenient  to  regard  as  a  single  thoroughfare  extending 
without  change  of  name  across  the  city. 

The  more  important  buildings  of  each  Region  are  given  in  the  order  of 
the  Insulae. 


Region  I 

iii. 

3- 

Bakery. 

Insula 

7- 

So-called  Academy  of  Music 

i. 

5- 

Inn. 

— Accademia  di  Musica. 

8. 

Inn  of  Hermes. 

20. 

Wineshop. 

ii. 

24. 

Wineshop. 

v. 

3- 

House  of  Neptune  —  casa  di 

28. 

House  with  a  grating  over 

Nettuno. 

the  impluvium. 

vi. 

I. 

House    of  Pansa  —  casa   di 

iv. 

5- 

House    of    the    Citharist  — 

Pansa. 

casa  del  Citarista. 

vii. 

18. 

House  of  Adonis  —  casa  di 

v. 

2. 

Tannery. 

20. 

Adone. 
Casa  dell"  Argenteria. 

Region  V 

22. 

Inn. 

Insula 

23- 

House  of  Apollo. 

i. 

7- 

Casa  del  Torello  di  Bronzo. 

25. 

Casa  del  Duca  d'  Aumale. 

18. 

Casa  degli  Epigrammi. 

viii. 

5- 

House  of  the  Tragic  Poet  — 

26. 

House  of   L.   Caecilius   Ju- 

rasa  del  Poeta  Tragico. 

cundus. 

20. 

Fullery. 

28. 

House     of     M.     Tofelanus 

22. 

Casa  della  Fontana  Grande. 

Valens. 

23- 

Casa  della  Fontana  Piccola. 

ii. 

I. 

Casa     della     Regina     Mar- 
gherita. 

ix. 

2. 

House  of  Meleager  —  casa 
di  Meleagro. 

4- 

Casa  del  Triclinio. 

3- 

House  of  the  Centaur —  casa 

a. 

House  of  the   Silver  Wed- 

del Centauro. 

ding —  casa    delle    Nozze 

6. 

House  of  Castor  and  Pollux 

d'  Argento. 

—  casa  di  Castore  e  Polluce. 

V. 

2. 

House    with    a    covered 

X. 

I. 

Wineshop. 

atrium. 

7- 

House  of  the  Anchor  —  casa 
deir  Ancera. 

Region  VI 

II. 

Casa  del  Naviglio. 

Insu 

LA 

xi. 

10. 

House  of  the   Labyrinth  — 

1 

[ns. 

Occidentalis.  i.   Inn. 

casa  del  Laberinto. 

i. 

7- 

House    of    the    \'estals  — 
casa  delle  Ve-stali. 

xii. 

House  of  the  Faun  —  casa 
del  Fauno. 

10. 

House    of    the    Surgeon 
casa  del  Chirurgo. 

xiii. 

6. 

House  of  ^M.  Terentius  Eu- 
doxus. 

13- 

So-called  custom-house. 

xiv. 

20. 

House  of  M.  Vesonius  Pri- 

ii. 

4- 

House  of  Sallust  —  casa  di 
Sallustio. 

mus,  often  called  the  house 
of  Orpheus — casadi  Orfeo. 

6. 

Bakery. 

22. 

Fullery. 

14. 

House    of  the   Amazons  — 
casa  delle  Amazoni. 

30- 

House  of  Laocoon  —  casa  di 
Laocoonte. 

KEY   TO    PLAN    VI   {concluded) 


xiv.  35.  Bakery  with   kneading  ma- 
chine. 
43.  Casa  degH  Scienziati. 
XV.     I.  House  of  the  Vettii. 

9.  House  with   atrium  in  two 
stories. 

Region  VII 

Insula 

i.    8.  Stabian  Baths. 
25.  House  of  Siricus. 
40.  House  of  Caesius  Blandus. 
45.  Elephant  Inn. 
ii.  II.  Dyehouse. 

16.  House  of  M.  Gavius  Rufus. 
18.  House  of  C.  Vibius. 
20.  House  of  Popidius  Priscus. 
22.  Bakery. 

45.  House    of  the    Bear  —  casa 

deir  Orso. 

iii.  29.  House  of  M.  Spurius  Mesor. 

iv.    I.  Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta. 

48.  House  of  the   Hunt  —  casa 

della  Caccia. 
51.  House  of  the  Colored  Cap- 
itals —  casa  dei  Capitelli 
Colorati,  also  called  the 
house  of  Ariadna  —  casa 
d'  Arianna. 

56.  Casa  del  Granduca  di  Tos- 

cana. 

57.  Houseof  the  Sculptured  Cap- 

itals —  casa  dei   Capitelli 
Figurati. 
59.  House  of  the  Black  Wall  — 
casa  della  Parete  Nera. 
V.    2.  Baths, 
vi.  17.  Water  reservoir, 
vii.    5.  House  of  Cissonius. 

27.  City  treasury. 

28.  Public  closet. 
29-30.  Market  buildings. 

31.  Table  of  standard  measures. 

32.  Temple  of  Apollo, 
viii.         Forum. 

a.  Capitolium. 
ix.    I.  Building  of  Eumachia. 

2.  Temple  of  Vespasian. 

3.  Sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares. 
8.  Macellum. 


xii.  28.  House  with  projecting  upper 
story  —  casa  del  Balcone 
Pensile. 
35.  Inn. 
xiv.    9.  House  with  skeleton. 
XV.    8.  House  with  second  story  din- 
ing room. 
Ins.  Occidentalis. 
13.  House  near  the  Porta  Marina. 

Region  VIII 
Insula 

i.         Basilica. 

ii.  1, 3. Casa  di  Championnet. 
6.  Office  of  the  aediles. 
8.  Hall  of  the  city  council 
10.  Office  of  the  duumvirs. 
17-21.  Terrace  house,  with  bath. 
23.  Bath. 

39.  House  of  the  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II  —  casa  del'  Impe- 
ratore  Giuseppe  II. 
iii.    I.  Comitium. 

^Hf:  House  of  the  Wild  Boar  — 
casa  di  Cinghiale. 
iv.    4.  House  of  Marcus  Holconius. 
^      15.  House  of  Cornelius  Rufus. 
v-vi.)39.  House  of  Acceptus  and  Eu- 
hodia. 
viii.         The  theatres  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings. 

Region  IX 
Insula 

i.  20.  House  of  Epidius  Rufus. 
22.  House  of  Epidius  Sabinus. 
House  of  Balbus. 
Dyehouse, 

House  of  M.  Lucretius. 
Bakery. 

House  of  L.  Clodius  Varus. 
Central  Baths. 
House  with  triclinium  of  ma- 
sonry  and    seat    for   the 
children. 
6.  House  of  the  Centenary  — 
casa  del  Centenario  ;  also 
known  as  the  house  of  Ti- 
berius Claudius  Verus. 
a.  Inn  of  Hyginius  Firmus. 


11. 

16 

iii. 

2 

5 

10 

25 

iv. 

v. 

II 

10 


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